Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-6587cd75c8-vj8bv Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-04-23T19:46:17.623Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

38 - Cyber Racism

from Part IV - Effects in Cyber Behavior

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  06 December 2024

By
Ana-Maria Bliuc ,
Nicholas Faulkner ,
Andrew Jakubowicz  and
Craig McGarty
Edited by
Zheng Yan
Zheng Yan
Affiliation:
University at Albany, State University of New York
Get access

Summary

1 Introduction

 1.1 Defining Cyber Racism

 1.2 New Terms in Research on Cyber Racism

2 Themes in the Early Research on Cyber Racism

3 Where We Are Now in the Field of Cyber Racism – Current Themes

 3.1 Cyber Racism as Intragroup Communication

  3.1.1 Online White Supremacist Communities

 3.2 Cyber Racism as Intergroup Communication

  3.2.1 How Do Opposing Camps (Racists and Anti-Racists) Engage with Each Other in Online Debates?

  3.2.2 Effects of Cyber Racism as Intergroup Communication: Ideological Polarisation

 3.3 Experiences of Cyber Racism: Research from the Perspective of the Targets

4 Newly Emerging Themes: Racist Narratives about COVID 19

5 The State: Governments and the Regulation of Cyber Racism

6 Future Directions and Conclusion

Keywords

cyber racismInternetwhite supremacyonline communitiesfar-rightideologypolarisationCOVID-19radicalisationpolitical violence
Type
Chapter
Information
The Cambridge Handbook of Cyber Behavior , pp. 1131 - 1155
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2023

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Book purchase

Temporarily unavailable

References

Adams, J., & Roscigno, V. J. (2005). White supremacists, oppositional culture and the World Wide Web. Social Forces, 84(2), 759–778. https://doi.org/10.1353/sof.2006.0001CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Åkerlund, M. (2020). The importance of influential users in (re)producing Swedish far-right discourse on Twitter. European Journal of Communication, 35(6), 613–628. https://doi/0267323120940909CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Anglin, A. (2016). A normie’s guide to the alt-right. The Daily Stormer. www.dailystormer.com/a-normies-guide-to-the-alt-right/Google Scholar
Atanasov, A., Morales, G. D. F., & Nakov, P. (2020). Predicting the role of political trolls in social media. ARXIV. https://arxiv.org/pdf/1910.02001.pdfGoogle Scholar
Atton, C. (2006). Far-right media on the internet: Culture, discourse and power. New Media & Society, 8(4), 573–587. https://doi/10.1177/1461444806065653CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Awan, I., & Zempi, I. (2017). “I will blow your face OFF” – VIRTUAL and physical world anti-muslim hate crime. The British Journal of Criminology, 57(2), 362–380. https://doi.org/10.1093/bjc/azv122Google Scholar
Back, L. (2002). Aryans reading Adorno: Cyber-culture and twenty-first century racism. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 25, 628–651. https://doi/10.1080/01419870220136664CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bakalis, C. (2016). Regulating hate crime in the digital age. In The globalization of hate: Internationalizing hate crime? www.oxfordscholarship.com/view/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198785668.001.0001/acprof-9780198785668-chapter-17CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bandura, A. (1999). Moral disengagement in the perpetration of inhumanities. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 3(3), 193–209. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327957pspr0303_3CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bandura, A. (2002). Selective moral disengagement in the exercise of moral agency. Journal of Moral Education, 31(2), 101–119. https://doi.org/10.1080/0305724022014322CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Battersby, J., & Ball, R. (2019). Christchurch in the context of New Zealand terrorism and right wing extremism. Journal of Policing, Intelligence and Counter Terrorism, 14(3), 191–207. https://doi.org/10.1080/18335330.2019.1662077CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bei Li, L. (2018). Data privacy in the cyber age: Recommendations for regulating doxing and swatting. Federal Community Law Journal, 70, 317–325. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3012266Google Scholar
Billig, M. (2001). Humour and hatred: The racist jokes of the Ku Klux Klan. Discourse & Society, 12(3), 267–289. https://doi.org/10.1177/0957926501012003001CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bliuc, A. M., Betts, J. M., Faulkner, N., Vergani, M., Chow, R. J., Iqbal, M., & Best, D. (2020). The effects of local socio-political events on group cohesion in online far-right communities. PloS one, 15(3). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0230302CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bliuc, A. M., Betts, J., Vergani, M., Iqbal, M., & Dunn, K. (2019). Collective identity changes in far-right online communities: The role of offline intergroup conflict. New Media & Society, 21(8), 1770–1786. https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/pygz3CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bliuc, A. M., Faulkner, N., Jakubowicz, A., & McGarty, C. (2018). Online networks of racial hate: A systematic review of 10 years of research on cyber racism. Computers in Human Behavior, 87, 75–86. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2018.05.026CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bliuc, A.-M., McGarty, C., Reynolds, K. J., & Muntele, D. (2007). Opinion-based group membership as a predictor of commitment to political action. European Journal of Social Psychology, 37, 19–32. https://doi/10.1002/ejsp.334CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bliuc, A.-M., McGarty, C., Thomas, E. F., Lala, G., Berndsen, M., & Misajon, R. (2015). Public division about climate change rooted in conflicting socio-political identities. Nature Climate Change, 5, 226–229. https://doi/10.1038/nclimate2507CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bliuc, A. M., Smith, L. G., & Moynihan, T. (2020). “You wouldn’t celebrate September 11”: Testing online polarisation between opposing ideological camps on YouTube. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 23(6), 827–844. https://doi.org/10.31219/osf.io/476jyCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bowles, N. (2016). Internet trolls are “Machiavellian sadists and psychopaths”. The Guardian. www.theguardian.com/technology/2016/mar/12/sxsw-gamergate-harassment-summit-bullying-panel.Google Scholar
Briskman, L. (2015). The creeping blight of Islamophobia in Australia. International Journal for Crime, Justice and Social Democracy, 4(3), 112–121. https://doi.org/10.5204/ijcjsd.v4i3.244CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Buni, C., & Chemaly, S. (2016). The secret rules of the Internet. The Verge. www.theverge.com/2016/4/13/11387934/internet-moderator-history-youtube-facebook-reddit-censorship-free-speech.Google Scholar
Calabrano, S. M. (2020). From the message board to the front door: Addressing the offline consequences of race- and gender-based doxxing and swatting. Suffolk University Law Review, 51, 55–75. https://cpb-us-e1.wpmucdn.com/sites.suffolk.edu/dist/3/1172/files/2020/02/Calabro-Printer-PDF-1.pdfGoogle Scholar
Capitanchik, D., & Whine, M. (1996). The governance of cyberspace: Racism on the Internet. London: Institute for Jewish Policy Research.Google Scholar
Cerase, A., D’Angelo, E., & Santoro, C. (2015). Monitoring racist and xenophobic extremism to counter hate speech online: Ethical dilemmas and methods of a preventive approach. VOX Pol. www.voxpol.eu/monitoring-racist-and-xenophobic-extremism-to-counter-hate-speech-online-ethical-dilemmas-and-methods-of-a-preventive-approach/.Google Scholar
Chung, R. Y. N., & Li, M. M. (2020). Anti-Chinese sentiment during the 2019-nCoV outbreak. The Lancet, 395(10225), 686–687. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140-6736(20)30358-5CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Clissold, E., Nylander, D., Watson, C., & Ventriglio, A. (2020). Pandemics and prejudice. International Journal of Social Psychiatry, 66(5), 421–423. https://doi.org/10.1177/0020764020937873CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cohen, K., Johansson, F., Kaati, L., & Mork, J. C. (2014). Detecting linguistic markers for radical violence in social media. Terrorism and Political Violence, 26(1), 246–256. https://doi/10.1080/09546553.2014.849948CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cohen-Almagor, R. (2011). Fighting hate and bigotry on the Internet. Policy and Internet, 3(3), 89–114. https://doi.org/10.2202/1944-2866.1059CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Coles, B., & West, M. (2016). Trolling the trolls: Online forum users constructions of the nature and properties of trolling. Computers in Human Behavior, 60, 233–244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2016.02.070CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Conway, M. (2017). Determining the role of the Internet in violent extremism and terrorism: Six suggestions for progressing research. Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, 40(1), 77–98. https://doi.org/10.1080/1057610x.2016.1157408CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cook, C., Schaafsma, J., & Antheunis, M. N. (2018). Under the bridge: An in-depth examination of online trolling in the gaming context. New Media & Society, 20, 3323–3340. https://doi/10.1177/1461444817748578CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Council of Europe. (2003). Additional Protocol to the Convention on Cybercrime, concerning the criminalisation of acts of a racist and xenophobic nature committed through computer systems’, ETS No.189. www.coe.int/en/web/conventions/full-list/-/conventions/treaty/189Google Scholar
Craker, N., & March, E. (2016). The dark side of Facebook: The Dark Tetrad, negative social potency, and trolling behaviours. Personality and Individual Differences, 102, 79–82. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2016.06.043CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Criss, S., Michaels, E. K., Solomon, K., Allen, A. M., & Nguyen, T. T. (2020). Twitter fingers and echo chambers: Exploring expressions and experiences of online racism using Twitter. Journal of Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities, 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40615-020-00894-5CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Croucher, S. M., Nguyen, T., & Rahmani, D. (2020). Prejudice toward Asian Americans in the Covid-19 pandemic: The effects of social media use in the United States. Frontiers in Communication, 5, 39. https://doi/10.3389/fcomm.2020.00039CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cruz, A. G. B., Seo, Y., & Rex, M. (2017). Trolling in online communities: A practice-based theoretical perspective. The Information Society, 34(1), 15–26. https://doi.org/10.1080/01972243.2017.1391909CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Daniels, J. (2009). Cyber racism: White supremacy online and the new attack on civil rights perspectives on a multiracial America. Rowan and Littlefield.Google Scholar
Devakumar, D., Shannon, G., Bhopal, S. S., & Abubakar, I. (2020). Racism and discrimination in COVID-19 responses. The Lancet, 395(10231), 1194. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140-6736(20)30792-3CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Douglas, K. M., McGarty, C., Bliuc, A. M., & Lala, G. (2005). Understanding cyberhate: Social competition and social creativity in online white supremacist groups. Social Science Computer Review, 23(1), 68–76. https://doi.org/10.1177/0894439304271538CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Douglas, K. M., Sutton, R. M., & Cichocka, A. (2017). The psychology of conspiracy theories. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 26(6), 538–542. https://doi/10.1177/0963721417718261CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Douglas, K. M., Uscinski, J. E., Sutton, R. M., Cichocka, A., Nefes, T., Ang, C. S., & Deravi, F. (2019). Understanding conspiracy theories. Political Psychology, 40, 3–35. https://doi/10.1111/pops.12568CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eddington, S. M. (2018). The communicative constitution of hate organizations online: A semantic network analysis of “Make America Great Again”. Social Media + Society, 4(3), https://doi/2056305118790763CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Electronic Frontiers Australia. (2002). Online Hate Speech and Section 18C of the Australian Racial Discrimination Act 1975, Submission to HREOC’s Background Paper for the Cyber racism Symposium 2002. www.efa.org.au/Publish/hreocsubm2002.html.Google Scholar
English, D., Lambert, S. F., Tynes, B. M., Bowleg, L., Zea, M. C., & Howard, L. C. (2020). Daily multidimensional racial discrimination among Black US American adolescents. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 66, 101068. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2019.101068CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Erjavec, K., & Kovačič, M. P. (2012). “You don’t understand, this is a new war!” Analysis of hate speech in news web sites’ comments. Mass Communication and Society, 15(6), 899–920. https://doi.org/10.1080/15205436.2011.619679CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eschmann, R. (2019). Unmasking racism: Students of color and expressions of racism in online spaces. Social Problems, 32(2), 115–126. https://doi.org/10.1093/socpro/spz026Google Scholar
European Commission against Racism and Intolerance (ECRI). (2000) “Combating the Dissemination of Racist, Xenophobix and Antisemtiic Material via the Internet,” ECRI General Policy Recommendation No.6, ECRI. www.coe.int/t/dghl/monitoring/ecri/activities/gpr/en/recommendation_n6/Rec%206%20en.pdfGoogle Scholar
Fairlamb, S., & Cinnirella, M. (2020). To be or not to be tolerant? A Terror Management perspective exploring the ideological dilemma of tolerance and prejudice. British Journal of Social Psychology, 60(2), 360–382. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjso.12407CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Faulkner, N., & Bliuc, A. M. (2016). “It’s okay to be racist”: Moral disengagement in online discussions of racist incidents in Australia. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 39(14), 2545–2563. https://doi.org/10.1080/01419870.2016.1171370CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Faulkner, N., & Bliuc, A. M. (2018). Breaking down the language of racism: A computerised linguistic analysis of racist groups’ self-defining online statements. Analyses of Social Issues and Public Policy, 18(1), 307–322. https://doi.org/10.31219/osf.io/n8xwvCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Froio, C. (2018). Race, religion, or culture? Framing Islam between racism and neo-racism in the online network of the French far right. Perspectives on Politics, 16(3), 696–709. https://doi.org/10.1017/s1537592718001573CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gerstenfeld, P. B., Grant, , D. R, & Chiang, C. P. (2003). Hate online: A content analysis of extremist internet sites. Analyses of Social Issues and Public Policy, 3(1), 29–44. doi:10.1111/j.1530-2415.2003.00013.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Glaser, J., Dixit, J., & Green, D. P. (2002). Studying hate crime with the Internet: What makes racists advocate racial violence? Journal of Social Issues, 58(1), 177–193. https://doi.org/10.1111/1540-4560.00255CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goodwin, M. (2020) “Unmasking Islamophobia”: Anti-Muslim hostility and/as white supremacy. Journal of the American Academy of Religion, 88(2), 354–386. https://doi.org/10.1093/jaarel/lfaa012CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gottschalk, S. (2020). Accelerators, amplifiers, and conductors: A model of tertiary deviance in online white supremacist networks. Deviant Behavior, 41(7), 841–855. https://doi.org/10.1080/01639625.2020.1734746CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Graham, J., Haidt, J., & Nosek, B. A. (2009). Liberals and conservatives rely on different sets of moral foundations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 96(5), 1029–46. https://doi/10.1037/a0015141CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Greenberg, J., Pyszczynski, T., & Solomon, S. (1986). The causes and consequences of a need for self‐esteem: A terror management theory. In Baumeister, R. F. (Ed.), Public self and private self (Vol. 189, pp. 189–212). Springer‐Verlag.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harlow, S. (2015). Story-chatterers stirring up Hate: Racist discourse in reader comments on U.S. Newspaper websites. Howard Journal of Communications, 26, 21–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10646175.2014.984795.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Helmus, T., Bodine-Baron, E., Radin, A., Magnuson, M., Mendelsohn, J., Marcellino, W., Bega, A., & Winkelman, Z. (2018). Russian Social Media Influence: Understanding Russian Propaganda in Eastern Europe, Santa Monica, Calif.: RAND. www.rand.org/content/dam/rand/pubs/research_reports/RR2200/RR2237/RAND_RR2237.pdfGoogle Scholar
Hine, G. E., Onaolapo, J., De Cristofaro, E., Kourtellis, N., Leontiadis, I., Samaras, R., Stringhini, G., & Blackburn, J. (2016). A Longitudinal Measurement Study of 4chan’s Politically Incorrect Forum and Its Effect on the Web (version 3). https://doi/arxiv.org/pdf/1610.03452v3.pdfGoogle Scholar
Hokka, J., & Nelimarkka, M. (2020). Affective economy of national-populist images: Investigating national and transnational online networks through visual big data. New Media & Society, 22(5), 770–792. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444819868686CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Huffaker, D. (2010). Dimensions of leadership and social influence in online communities. Human Communication Research, 36(4), 593–617. https://doi/10.1111/j.1468-2958.2010.01390.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jakubowicz, A. (2012) “Cyber Racism”, in more or less: Democracy and new media. Online version. www.futureleaders.com.au/book_chapters/pdf/More-or-Less/Andrew_Jakubowicz.pdfGoogle Scholar
Jakubowicz, A. (2017). Alt_right white lite: Trolling, hate speech and cyber racism on social media. Cosmopolitan Civil Societies: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 9(3), 41–60. https://doi.org/10.5130/ccs.v9i3.5655Google Scholar
Jonas, E., & Fritsche, I. (2013). Destined to die but not to wage war: How existential threat can contribute to escalation or de‐escalation of violent intergroup conflict. American Psychologist, 68, 543–558. https://doi/10.1037/a0033052CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Keum, B. T., & Miller, M. J. (2017). Racism in the digital era: Development and initial validation of the Perceived Online Racism Scale (PORS v1. 0). Journal of Counseling Psychology, 64(3), 310–319. https://doi.org/10.1037/cou0000205CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Keum, B. T., & Miller, M. J. (2018a). Measurement invariance of the perceived online racism scale across age and gender. Cyberpsychology: Journal of Psychosocial Research on Cyberspace, 12(3), 312–321. https://doi.org/10.5817/cp2018-3-3Google Scholar
Keum, B. T., & Miller, M. J. (2018b). Racism on the Internet: Conceptualization and recommendations for research. Psychology of Violence, 8(6), 782–791. https://doi.org/10.1037/vio0000201CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kircaburun, K., & Griffiths, B. (2018). The dark side of the Internet: Preliminary evidence for the associations of dark personality traits with specific online activities and problematic internet use. Journal of Behavioral Addictions, 7(4), 993–1003. https://doi/10.1556/2006.7.2018.109CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kirkwood, G. L., Payne, H. J., & Mazer, J. P. (2019). Collective trolling as a form of organizational resistance: Analysis of the #Justiceforbradswife Twitter campaign. Communication Studies, 70(3), 332–351. https://doi.org/10.1080/10510974.2019.1610015CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Klein, A. (2012). Slipping racism into the mainstream: A theory of information laundering. Communication Theory, 22(4), 427–448. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1468-2885.2012.01415.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Levey, P., & Bouchard, M. (2019). The emergence of violent narratives in the life-course trajectories of online forum participants. Journal of Qualitative Criminal Justice and Criminology, 7(2), 95–121. https://doi.org/10.21428/88de04a1.8ba87ca7Google Scholar
Lopes, B., & Yu, H. (2017). Who do you troll and why? An investigation into the relationship between the Dark Triad Personalities and online trolling behaviours towards popular and less popular Facebook profiles. Computers in Human Behavior, 77, 69–76. https://doi/10.1016/j.chb.2017.08.036CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Love, E. (2004). Race over empire: Racism and U.S. imperialism, 1865–1900. University of North Carolina Press.Google Scholar
Lozada, F. T., & Tynes, B. M. (2017). Longitudinal effects of online experiences on empathy among African American adolescents. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 52, 181–190. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2017.07.009CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Maher, P. J., MacCarron, P., & Quayle, M. (2020). Mapping public health responses with attitude networks: The emergence of opinion‐based groups in the UK’s early COVID‐19 response phase. British Journal of Social Psychology, 59, 641–652. https://doi/10.1111/bjso.12396CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mason, G., & Czapski, N. (2017). Regulating cyber racism. Melbourne University Law Review, 41(1), 32–63. http://law.unimelb.edu.au/mulrGoogle Scholar
Matamoros-Fernández, A. (2017). Platformed racism: The mediation and circulation of an Australian race-based controversy on Twitter, Facebook and YouTube. Information, Communication & Society, 20(6), 930–946. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369118x.2017.1293130CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McCombie, S., Uhlmann, A. J., & Morrison, S. (2020). The US 2016 presidential election & Russia’s troll farms. Intelligence and National Security, 35(1), 95–114. https://doi.org/10.1080/02684527.2019.1673940CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McGarty, C., Bliuc, A.-M, Thomas, E. F., & Bongiorno, R. T. (2009). Collective action as the material expression of opinion-based group membership. Journal of Social Issues, 65, 839–857. https://doi/10.1111/j.1540-4560.2009.01627.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
McGarty, C., Yzerbyt, V. Y., & Spears, R. (Eds.). (2002). Stereotypes as explanations: The formation of meaningful beliefs about social groups. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511489877CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McGonagle, T. (2012). “The troubled relationship between free speech and racist hate speech: The ambiguous roles of the media and internet”, Day of Thematic Discussion “Racist Hate Speech”, UN Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination. www.ivir.nl/publicaties/download/Expert_Paper_Racist_Hate_Speech_UN.pdfGoogle Scholar
McVittie, C., McKinlay, A., & Munro, R. (2020). “A Golly was simply a toy. End of”: Inoculation, attention deflection, and attempted puzzle‐resolution in contesting racism in online discussions. European Journal of Social Psychology, 50(3), 673–684. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.2640CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mei, J., & Frank, R. (2015). Sentiment crawling: Extremist content collection through a sentiment analysis guided web-crawler. In Proceedings of the International Symposium on Foundations of Open Source Intelligence and Security Informatics, Paris, France. https://doi.org/10.1145/2808797.2809373CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mulznieks, N. (2010). The crisis, the Internet and racism in Europe. ENARgy. www.enargywebzine.eu/spip.php?article21Google Scholar
Nagle, A. (2017). Kill all normies: Online culture wars from 4chan and Tumblr to Trump and the alt-right. Zero Books.Google Scholar
Negroponte, N. (1998). Beyond digital. Wired, 6(12), 288. https://doi.org/10.1023/b:bttj.0000047628.30218.44Google Scholar
Oboler, A. (2016). Measuring the hate: The state of Antisemitism in social media. The Online Hate Prevention Institute. http://ohpi.org.au/measuring-antisemitism/Google Scholar
Ortiz, S. M. (2019). The meanings of racist and sexist trash talk for men of color: A cultural sociological approach to studying gaming culture. New Media and Society, 21(4), 879–894. https://doi/10.1177/1461444818814252CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pantti, M., Nelimarkka, M., Nikunen, K., & Titley, G. (2019). The meanings of racism: Public discourses about racism in Finnish news media and online discussion forums. European Journal of Communication, 34(5), 503–519. https://doi.org/10.1177/0267323119874253CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Papacharissi, Z. (2002). The virtual sphere: The Internet as a public sphere. New Media & Society, 4(1), 9–27. https://doi.org/10.1177/14614440222226244CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Parliament of Australia. (2017). Freedom of speech in Australia: Inquiry into the operation of Part IIA of the Racial Discrimination Act 1975 (Cth) and related procedures under the Australian Human Rights Commission Act 1986 (Cth) Canberra: Parliament of Australia. www.aph.gov.au/Parliamentary_Business/Committees/Joint/Human_Rights_inquiries/FreedomspeechAustralia/ReportGoogle Scholar
Pearson, J. (2016). Scientists Invented a Tool to Expose 4chan’s Racist Trolling Campaigns, Motherboard. https://motherboard.vice.com/en_us/article/block-4chan-to-stop-the-alt-right-from-spreading-racist-memes-scientists-sayGoogle Scholar
Petty, R.E., & Cacioppo, J.T. (1990) Involvement and persuasion: Tradition versus integration. Psychological Bulletin, 107(3), 367–374. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.107.3.367CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Postmes, T., Haslam, S. A., & Swaab, R. I. (2005). Social influence in small groups: An interactive model of social identity formation. European Review of Social Psychology, 16(1), 1–42. https://doi.org/10.1080/10463280440000062CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reynolds, L., & Scott, R. (2016) Digital citizens: Countering extremism online, London: Demos. Available at: www.demos.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2016/12/Digital-Citizenship-web-1.pdfGoogle Scholar
Sanfilippo, M. R., Fichman, P., & Yang, S. (2018). Multidimensionality of online trolling behaviors. The Information Society, 34(1), 27–39. doi: 10.1080/01972243.2017.1391911CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schmuck, D., Heiss, R., & Matthes, J. (2020). Drifting further apart? How exposure to media portrayals of Muslims affects attitude polarization. Political Psychology, 41(6), 1055–1072. https://doi.org/10.1111/pops.12664CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Scrivens, R., Davies, G., & Frank, R. (2020). Measuring the evolution of radical right-wing posting behaviors online. Deviant Behavior, 41(2), 216–232. https://doi/10.1080/01639625.2018.1556994CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shimizu, K. (2020). 2019-nCoV, fake news, and racism. The Lancet, 395(10225), 685–686. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140-6736(20)30357-3CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Smith, L. G. E., McGarty, C., & Thomas, E. F. (2018). After Aylan Kurdi: How tweeting about death, threat, and harm predict increased expressions of solidarity with refugees over time. Psychological Science, 29 (4), 623–634. https://doi/10.1177/095679761774110CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sorokowski, P., Kowal, M., Zydek, P., & Oleszkiewicz, A. (2020). Are online haters psychopaths? Psychological predictors of online hating behavior. Frontiers in Psychology, 11. https://doi/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00553CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stein, J. (2016). How Trolls Are Ruining the Internet. Time (August 18/September 12).Google Scholar
Stewart, A., Schuschke, J., & Tynes, B. (2019). Online racism: Adjustment and protective factors among adolescents of color. In Handbook of children and prejudice (pp. 501–513). Springer, Cham.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stewart, B. (2020). The rise of far-right civilizationism. Critical Sociology, 46, 1207–1220. https://doi/0896920519894051CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stroud, S., & Head, J. (2019). Doxing and digital journalism, media engagement. Center for Media Engagement. https://mediaengagement.org/research/doxing-and-digital-journalism/Google Scholar
Törnberg, P. (2018) Echo chambers and viral misinformation: Modeling fake news as complex contagion. PLoS ONE, 13(9), e0203958. https://doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0203958CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Trottier, D. (2019) Denunciation and doxing: Towards a conceptual model of digital vigilantism. Global Crime, 21, 196–212. https://doi/10.1080/17440572.2019.1591952CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tynes, B. M., Del Toro, J., & Lozada, F. T. (2015). An unwelcomed digital visitor in the classroom: The longitudinal impact of online racial discrimination on academic motivation. School Psychology Review, 44(4), 407–424. https://doi.org/10.17105/spr-15-0095.1CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tynes, B. M., English, D., Del Toro, J., Smith, N. A., Lozada, F. T., & Williams, D. R. (2020). Trajectories of online racial discrimination and psychological functioning among African American and Latino adolescents. Child Development, 91(5), 1577–1593. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.13350CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tynes, B. M., Giang, M. T., Williams, D. R., & Thompson, G. N. (2008). Online racial discrimination and psychological adjustment among adolescents. Journal of Adolescent Health, 43(6), 565–569. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2008.08.021CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tynes, B. M., Lozada, F. T., Smith, N. A., & Stewart, A. M. (2018). From racial microaggressions to hate crimes: A model of online racism based on the lived experiences of adolescents of color. In Torino, G, Rivera, D, Capodilupo, C, Nadal, K & Sue, D (Eds.), Microaggression Theory: Influence and Implications (pp. 194–212). Wiley. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119466642.ch12CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tynes, B. M., Rose, C. A., & Williams, D. R. (2010). The development and validation of the online victimization scale for adolescents. Cyberpsychology: Journal of Psychosocial Research on Cyberspace, 4(2). https://cyberpsychology.eu/article/view/4237/3282Google Scholar
Tynes, B. M., Rose, C. A., Hiss, S., Umaña-Taylor, A. J., Mitchell, K., & Williams, D. (2014). Virtual environments, online racial discrimination, and adjustment among a diverse, school-based sample of adolescents. International Journal of Gaming and Computer-Mediated Simulations, 6(3), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.4018/ijgcms.2014070101CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tynes, B. M., Umana-Taylor, A. J., Rose, C. A., Lin, J., & Anderson, C. J. (2012). Online racial discrimination and the protective function of ethnic identity and self-esteem for African American adolescents. Developmental Psychology, 48(2), 343–355. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0027032CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Umaña-Taylor, A. J., Tynes, B. M., Toomey, R. B., Williams, D. R., & Mitchell, K. J. (2015). Latino adolescents’ perceived discrimination in online and offline settings: An examination of cultural risk and protective factors. Developmental Psychology, 51(1), 87–100. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0038432CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vargo, C., & Hopp, T. (2020). Fear, anger, and political advertisement engagement: A computational case study of Russian-linked Facebook and Instagram content. Journalism and Mass Communication Quarterly, 97(3), 743–761. https://doi/10.1177/1077699020911884CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vidgen, B., & Yasseri, T. (2020). Detecting weak and strong Islamophobic hate speech on social media. Journal of Information Technology & Politics, 17(1), 66–78. https://doi.org/10.1080/19331681.2019.1702607CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vidgen, B., Margetts, H., & Harris, A. (2019). How Much Online Abuse Is There? A Systematic Review of Evidence for the UK. The Alan Turing Institute. www.turing.ac.uk/research/research-programmes/public-policy/programmearticles/how-much-online-abuse-thereGoogle Scholar
Vidgen, B., Yasseri, T., & Margetts, H. (2019). Trajectories of Islamophobic hate amongst far right actors on Twitter. arXiv preprint arXiv, https://doi/1910.05794Google Scholar
Williams, Matthew L., & Burnap, P. (2015). Cyberhate on social media in the aftermath of Woolwich: A case study in computational criminology and big data. British Journal of Criminology, 56(2), 211–238. https://doi/10.1093/bjc/azv059CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wojcieszak, M. (2010). “Don’t talk to me”: Effects of ideological homogenous online groups and politically dissimilar offline ties on extremism. New Media and Society, 12(4), 637–655. https://doi/10.1177/1461444809342775CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wu, B. (2015). Doxxed: Impact of online threats on women including private details being exposed and “swatting”. Index on Censorship, 44(3), 46–49. https://doi.org/10.1177/0306422015605714CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure [email protected] is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×