Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-lnqnp Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-28T07:44:02.780Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

4 - Multilingual Education in Formal Schooling: Conceptual Shifts in Theory, Policy and Practice

from Part One - Becoming and Being a Multilingual Child

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  18 August 2022

By
Latisha Mary  and
Christine Hélot
Edited by
Anat Stavans  and
Ulrike Jessner
Anat Stavans
Affiliation:
Beit Berl College, Israel
Ulrike Jessner
Affiliation:
Leopold-Franzens-Universität Innsbruck, Austria
Get access

Summary

This chapter examines models of multilingual education currently implemented in formal education systems around the world. Within the presentation of these models the chapter addresses the ideologies underlying the conceptualisations of the various programmes, the issue of the choice of language to be learned in relation to local contexts, types of learners enrolled in these programmes and the diverse outcomes of these models. This overview will (1) provide a backdrop to a discussion on the dominance of English and dominant European languages within these curricula, and (2) address the minoritisation of migrant and indigenous minority speakers’ bi-multilingualism and home languages. We conclude with a discussion of new approaches to the conceptualisation of multilingual education as a more flexible and dynamic process and the impact of such findings for language policymakers and educators at all levels.

Keywords

bilingual educationmultilingual educationearly foreign language learningideologiesminorisationlanguage policymother-tongue educationsocial justicetrilingual education
Type
Chapter
Information
The Cambridge Handbook of Childhood Multilingualism , pp. 82 - 110
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2022

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Adamson, B., & Feng, A. (2014). Models for trilingual education in the People’s Republic of China. In Gorter, D., Zenotz, V., & Cenoz, J., eds., Minority Languages and Multilingual Education. Dordrecht: Springer, pp. 29–44.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Arshad, R., Wrigley, T., & Pratt, L. (2019). Social Justice Re-examined: Dilemmas and Solutions for the Classroom Teacher, 2nd Ed. London: UCL Institute of Education Press.Google Scholar
Alber, E. (2012). South Tyrol’s education system: Plurilingual answers for monolinguistic spheres? L’Europe en Formation, 363(1), 399–415.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Avineri, N., Graham, L. R., Johnson, E. J., Riner, R. C., & Rosa, J. (2019). Language and Social Justice in Practice. New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Baker, C., & Wright, W. E. (2017). Foundations of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 6th Ed. Bristol: Multilingual Matters.Google Scholar
Barahona, M. (2016). Challenges and accomplishments of ELT at primary level in Chile: Towards the aspiration of becoming a bilingual country. Education Policy Analysis Archives, 24(82), 1–29.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Beetsma, D. (2001). Trilingual Primary Education in Europe: Inventory of the Provisions for Trilingual Primary Education in Minority Language Communities of the European Union. Leeuwarden: Mercator Education.Google Scholar
Benson, C. (2014). Adopting a multilingual habitus: What North and South can learn from each other about the essential role of non-dominant languages in education. In Gorter, D., Zenotz, V., & Cenoz, J., eds., Minority Languages and Multilingual Education: Bridging the Local and the Global. Dordrecht: Springer, pp. 11–28.Google Scholar
Benson, C. (2017). Multilingual education for all: Applying an integrated multilingual curriculum model to low-income contexts. In Coleman, H., ed., Multilingualism and Development. London: British Council, pp. 101–13.Google Scholar
Blanchet, P. (2016) Discriminations. Combattre la glottophobie. Paris: Textuel.Google Scholar
Bunyi, G., & Schroeder, L. (2017) Bilingual education in sub-Saharan Africa: Policies and practice. In García, O., Lin, A. M. Y., & May, S., eds., Bilingual and Multilingual Education, Encyclopedia of Language and Education. Cham: Springer, pp. 311–28.Google Scholar
Butler, Y. G. (2017). The dynamics of motivation development among young learners of English in China. In Enever, J. & Lindgren, E., eds., Early Language Learning: Complexity and Mixed Methods. Bristol: Multilingual Matters, pp. 11–28.Google Scholar
Canagarajah, S., & Ashraf, H. (2013). Multilingualism and education in South Asia: Resolving policy/practice dilemmas. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 33, 258–85.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carder, M. (2007). Bilingualism in International Schools. A Model for Enriching Language Education. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carvajal, A. B., & Tejada-Sánchez, I. (2016). Questions in Colombia’s foreign language education policy. Profile, 18(1), 185–201.Google Scholar
Cenoz, J. (2005). English in bilingual programs in the Basque Country. International Journal of the Sociology of Language, 171, 41–57.Google Scholar
Cenoz, J. (2013). Bilingual and multilingual education: Overview. In Chapelle, C. A., The Encyclopedia of Applied Linguistics. New York: Blackwell, pp. 510–17.Google Scholar
Cenoz, J., & Gorter, D. (2011). Focus on multilingualism: A study of trilingual writing. The Modern Language Journal, 95(3), 356–69.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cenoz, J., & Gorter, D. (2014). Focus on multilingualism as an approach in educational contexts. In Blackledge, A. & Creese, A., eds, Heteroglossia as Practice and Pedagogy. Dordrecht: Springer, pp. 239–54.Google Scholar
Cenoz, J., & Valencia, J. F. (1994). Additive trilingualism: Evidence from the Basque Country. Applied Psycholinguistics, 15(2), 195–207.Google Scholar
Coleman, H. (2011). Dreams and Realities: Developing Countries and the English Language. London: British Council.Google Scholar
Conteh, J. (ed.) (2018). Researching Education for Social Justice in Multilingual Settings: Ethnographic Principles in Qualitative Research. London: Bloomsbury.Google Scholar
Council of Europe (1954). European Cultural Convention Paris, 19.XII.1954. Retrieved 3 March 2020 from www.coe.int/en/web/conventions/full-list/-/conventions/rms/090000168006457e.Google Scholar
Council of Europe (1992). European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. Retrieved 17 April 2020 from www.coe.int/en/web/conventions/full-list/-/conventions/rms/0900001680695175.Google Scholar
Council of Europe (2001). Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment. Modern Language Division, Strasbourg. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Retrieved 3 June 2020 from https://rm.coe.int/16802fc1bf.Google Scholar
Council of Europe (2009). Regional, Minority and Migration Languages. Strasbourg: Language Policy Division. Retrieved 2 April 2020 from https://rm.coe.int/CoERMPublicCommonSearchServices/DisplayDCTMContent?documentId=09000016805a234d.Google Scholar
Coupland, N. (2012) The Handbook of Language and Globalization. London: Wiley-Blackwell.Google Scholar
Coyle, D. (2007). Content and language integrated learning: Towards a connected research agenda for CLIL pedagogies. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 10(5), 543–62.Google Scholar
de Mejía, A. M. (2009). Teaching English to young learners in Colombia: Policy, practice and challenges. MEXTESOL Journal, 33, 103–14.Google Scholar
de Mejía, A. M. (2011). The National Bilingual Programme in Colombia: Imposition or opportunity? Apples, Journal of Applied Language Studies, 5(3), 7–17.Google Scholar
Department of Basic Education (DBE) (2013). The Incremental Introduction of African Language in South African Schools. Draft Policy. Retrieved 3 June 2020 from www.education.gov.za/Portals/0/Documents/Policies/IIAL Policy September 2013 (3).pdf?ver=2015-03-26-102501-853.Google Scholar
Department of Basic Education (DBE) (2015). Regulations Pertaining to the National Curriculum Statement Grade R to 12. Retrieved 3 June 2020 from www.education.gov.za/Portals/0/Documents/Policies/PolicyProgPromReqNCS.pdf?ver=2015-02-03-154857-397.Google Scholar
Duarte, J. (2019). Translanguaging in the context of mainstream multilingual education. International Journal of Multilingualism, 22(2), 150–64.Google Scholar
Enever, J. (2011). ELLiE: Early Language Learning in Europe. London: British Council.Google Scholar
Enever, J. (2018). Policy and Politics in Global Primary English. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
European Commission. (2000). Presidency Conclusions Lisbon European Council. Retrieved 2 April 2020 from www.europarl.europa.eu/summits/lis1_en.htm.Google Scholar
European Commission. (2002). Presidency Conclusions Barcelona European Council. Retrieved 2 April 2020 from https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/PRES_02_930.Google Scholar
European Commission. (2007). Making Globalisation Profitable. Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities.Google Scholar
European Commission. (2008). Council Conclusions on Multilingualism Barcelona. Official Journal of the European Union. Retrieved 2 April 2020 from https://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:C:2008:140:0014:0015:EN:PDF.Google Scholar
European Commission. (2012). First European Survey on Language Competences: Executive Summary. Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union.Google Scholar
European Commission/EACEA/Eurydice (2017). Key Data on Teaching Languages at School in Europe. Eurydice Report. Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union. Retrieved 22 December 2020 from https://eacea.ec.europa.eu/national-policies/eurydice/content/key-data-teaching-languages-school-europe-–-2017-edition_en.Google Scholar
European Commission/EACEA/Eurydice (2019). The Teaching of Regional or Minority Languages in Schools in Europe. Eurydice Report. Luxembourg: Publications office of the European Union. Retrieved 3 June 2020 from https://eacea.ec.europa.eu/national-policies/eurydice/sites/eurydice/files/minority_languages_en.pdf.Google Scholar
Eurydice (2006). Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) at School in Europe. Eurydice European Unit: Brussels. Retrieved 3 June 2020 from https://op.europa.eu/en/publication-detail/-/publication/756ebdaa-f694–44e4–8409-21eef02c9b9b.Google Scholar
Extra, G., & Gorter, D. (2001). Comparative perspectives on regional and immigrant minority languages in multicultural Europe. Multilingual matters. In Extra, G. & Gorter, D., eds., The Other Languages of Europe. Demographic, Sociolinguistic and Educational Perspectives. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters, pp. 1–41.Google Scholar
Flores, N., & Baetens Beardsmore, H. (2015) Programs and structures in bilingual and multilingual education. In Wright, W. E., Boun, S., & García, O., eds., The Handbook of Bilingual and Multilingual Education. Malden: Wiley-Blackwell, pp. 205–22.Google Scholar
Gao, X. A., & Wang, W. (2017). Bilingual education in the People’s Republic of China. In García, O., Lin, A. M. Y., & May, S., eds., Bilingual and Multilingual Education, Encyclopedia of Language and Education. Cham: Springer, pp. 219–32.Google Scholar
García, O. (ed) (2009). Bilingual Education in the 21st Century: A Global Perspective. Malden: Blackwell.Google Scholar
García, O., & Baetens Beardsmore, H. (2009). Heteroglossic bilingual education policy. In García, O., ed., Bilingual Education in the 21st Century: A Global Perspective. Malden: Wiley-Blackwell, pp. 244–85.Google Scholar
García, O., Johnson, S. I., & Seltzer, K. (2017). The Translanguaging Classroom: Leveraging Student Bilingualism for Learning. Philadelphia: Caslon.Google Scholar
García, O., & Kano, N. (2014). Translanguaging as process and pedagogy: Developing the English writing of Japanese students in the US. In Conteh, J. & Meier, G., eds., The Multilingual Turn in Languages Education: Benefits for Individuals and Societies. Bristol: Multilingual Matters, pp. 258–77.Google Scholar
García, O., & Kleyn, T. (2016). Translanguaging with Multilingual Students: Learning from Classroom Moments. New York and Abingdon: Routledge.Google Scholar
García, O., & Li, W. (2015). Translanguaging, bilingualism and bilingual education. In Wright, W. E., Sovicheth, B., & García, O., eds., The Handbook of Bilingual and Multilingual Education. Oxford: Wiley Blackwell, pp. 244–85.Google Scholar
Gorter, D., & Cenoz, J. (2011). Multilingual education for European minority languages: The Basque Country and Friesland. International Review of Education, 57, 651–66.Google Scholar
Groff, C. (2017). Language and language-in-education planning in multilingual India: a minoritized language perspective. Language Policy, 16, 135–64.Google Scholar
Hélot, C., & Cavalli, M. (2017). Bilingual education in Europe: Dominant languages. In García, O., Lin, A. M. Y., & May, S., eds., Bilingual and Multilingual Education, Encyclopedia of Language and Education. Cham: Springer, pp. 471–88.Google Scholar
Hélot, C., & Erfurt, J. (2016). L’Éducation bilingue en France: Politiques linguistiques, modèles et pratiques. Frankfurt am Main: Lambert-Lucas.Google Scholar
Hélot, C., & García, O. (2019). Bilingual education and policy. In Schwieter, J. W. & Benati, A., eds, The Cambridge Handbook of Language Learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 649–72.Google Scholar
Heugh, K. (2018). Multilingualism, diversity and equitable learning: Towards crossing the ‘abyss’. In Van Avermaet, P., Slembrouck, S., Van Gorp, K., Sierens, S., & Marijns, K., eds., The Multilingual Edge of Education. London: Palgrave, pp. 341–67.Google Scholar
Hu, Y. (2007). China’s foreign language policy on primary English education: What’s behind it? Language Policy, 6, 359–76.Google Scholar
Inspection générale de l’éducation nationale (2013). Bilan de la mise en œuvre des programmes issus de la réforme de l’école primaire de 2008. Retrieved 31 December 2020 from www.education.gouv.fr/bilan-de-la-mise-en-oeuvre-des-programmes-issus-de-la-reforme-de-l-ecole-primaire-de-2008-2237.Google Scholar
Jessner, U. (2006). Linguistic Awareness in Multilinguals: English as a Third Language. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.Google Scholar
Johnstone, R. (2009). An early start: What are the key conditions for generalized success? In Enever, J., Moon, J., & Ramen, U., eds., Young Learner English Language Policy and Implementation: International Perspectives. Reading: Garnet Publishing, pp. 31–41.Google Scholar
Johnstone, R. (2019). Language policy and English for young learners in early education. In Garton, S. & Copland, F., eds., The Routledge Handbook of Teaching English to Young Learners, pp. 3–29. New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Kamwangamalu, N. M. (2001). The language planning situation in South Africa. Current Issues in Language Planning 2(4), 361–445.Google Scholar
Khubchandani, L. M. (2003). Defining mother tongue education in plurilingual contexts. Language Policy, 2, 239–54.Google Scholar
Lasagabaster, D., & Sierra, J. M. (2010). Immersion and CLIL in English: More differences than similarities. ELT Journal, 64(4), 367–75.Google Scholar
Li, W. (2018). Translanguaging as a practical theory of language. Applied Linguistics, 39(1), 9–30.Google Scholar
Li, W., & Lin, A. M. Y. (2019). Translanguaging classroom discourse: Pushing limits, breaking boundaries. Classroom Discourse, 10 (3–4), 209–15.Google Scholar
Lopriore, L., & Krikhaar, E. (2011). The School. In Enever, J., ed., Early Language Learning in Europe. London: British Council, pp. 61–80.Google Scholar
Mackey, W. F. (1970). A typology of bilingual education. Foreign Language Annals, 3, 596–608.Google Scholar
Makalela, L. (2015). Moving out of linguistic boxes: The effects of translanguaging strategies for multilingual classrooms. Language and Education, 29(3), 200–17.Google Scholar
Makalela, L. (2017). Bilingualism in South Africa: Reconnecting with Ubuntu translanguaging. In García, O., Lin, A. M. Y., & May, S., eds., Bilingual and Multilingual Education, Encyclopedia of Language and Education. Cham: Springer, pp. 297–309.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Makoni, S., Butt-Griffler, J., & Mashiri, P. (2007). The use of “indigenous” and urban vernaculars in Zimbabwe. Language in Society, 36, 25–49.Google Scholar
Makoni, S., Makoni, B., & Rosenberg, A. (2010). The wordy words of popular music in Eastern and Southern Africa: Possible implications for language-in-education policy. Journal of Language, Identity and Education, 9, 1–16.Google Scholar
Manan, S. A., & Tul-Kubra, K. (2020). Beyond ‘two-solitudes’ assumption and monolingual idealism: Generating spaces for multilingual turn in Pakistan. International Journal of Multilingualism, https://doi.org/10.1080/14790718.2020.1742722.Google Scholar
Manh, L. D., Nguyen, H. T. M., & Burns, A. (2017). Teacher language proficiency and reform of English language education in Vietnam, 2008–2020. In Freeman, D. & Le Dréan, L. eds., Developing Classroom English Competence: Learning from the Vietnam Experience. Phnom Penh: IDP Education, pp. 19–34.Google Scholar
Mary, L., & Young, A. S. (2017). Engaging with emergent bilinguals and their families in the pre-primary classroom to foster well-being, learning and inclusion. Language and Intercultural Communication, 17(4), 455–73.Google Scholar
Ministère de l’Education Nationale. (2013). Bulletin Officiel n°30 du 25 juillet 2013. Retrieved 31 December 2020 from www.education.gouv.fr/pid285/bulletin_officiel.html?pid_bo=29743.Google Scholar
Mohanty, A. K. (2010). Languages, inequality and marginalization: Implications of the double divide in Indian multilingualism. International Journal of the Sociology of Language, 205, 131–54.Google Scholar
Mohanty, A. K. (2019). Language policy in education in India. In Kirkpatrick, A. & Liddicoat, A. J., eds., Routledge International Handbook of Language Education Policy in Asia. New York: Routledge, pp. 329–40.Google Scholar
Mohohlwane, N. (2020). Mother Tongue Instruction of Straight for English? The Primary Education Policy Dilemma. Matieland: Research on Socio-Economic Policy Department of Economics Stellenbosch University.Google Scholar
Muñoz, C. (2011). Input and long-term effects of starting age in foreign language learning. International Review of Applied Linguistics, 49, 113–33.Google Scholar
Muñoz, C. (2014a). Exploring young learners’ foreign language learning awareness. Language Awareness, 23(1–2), 24–40.Google Scholar
Muñoz, C. (2014b). Contrasting effects of starting age and input on the oral performance of foreign language learners. Applied Linguistics, 29(4), 578–96.Google Scholar
Murray, S. (2002). Language issues in South African education: An overview. In Mesthrie, R., ed., Language in South Africa. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 434–47.Google Scholar
Nikolov, M., & Djigunovic, J. M. (2006). Recent research on age, second language acquisition and early foreign language learning. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 26, 234–60.Google Scholar
Nikula, T. (2016). CLIL: A European approach to bilingual education. In Deusen-Scholl, N. V. & May, S., eds., Second and Foreign Language Education. Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 1–14.Google Scholar
Nusche, D. (2009). What Works in Migrant Education? A Review of Evidence and Policy Options (OECD Education Working Paper No. 22). Retrieved 3 June 2020 from www.oecd-ilibrary.org/docserver/227131784531.pdf?expires=1591197692&id=id&accname=guest&checksum=197C1BB0964282A24D50598FDC857144.Google Scholar
Panda, M., & Mohanty, A. K. (2015). Multilingual education in South Asia: The burden of the double divide. In Wright, W. E., Boun, S., & García, O., eds., The Handbook of Bilingual and Multilingual Education. Malden: Wiley-Blackwell, pp. 542–53.Google Scholar
Piller, I. (2016). Linguistic Diversity and Social Justice. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Probyn, M. (2019). Pedagogical translanguaging and the construction of science knowledge in a multilingual South African classroom: Challenging monoglossic/post-colonial orthodoxies. Classroom Discourse, 10(3–4), 216–36.Google Scholar
Ricento, T. (2015). Language Policy and Political Economy: English in a Global Context. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Sánchez, M. T., García, O., & Solorza, C. (2017). Reframing language allocation policy in dual language bilingual education. Bilingual Research Journal, 41(1), 37–51.Google Scholar
Sanz, C. (2000). Bilingual education enhances third language acquisition: Evidence from Catalonia. Applied Psycholinguistics, 21, 23–44.Google Scholar
Seargeant, P., & Erling, E. J. (2011). The discourse of “English as a Language for International Development”: Policy assumptions and practical challenges. In Coleman, H., ed., Dreams and Realities: Developing Countries and the English Language. London: British Council, pp. 248–68.Google Scholar
Sierens, S., & Van Avermaet, P. (2014). Language diversity in education: Evolving from multilingual education to functional multilingual learning. In Little, D., Leung, C., & Van Avermaet, P., eds., Managing Diversity in Education: Languages, Policies, Pedagogies, Bristol: Multilingual Matters, pp. 204–22.Google Scholar
Sierens, S., & Van Avermaet, P. (2017). Bilingual education in migrant languages in Western Europe. In García, O., Lin, A. M. Y., & May, S., eds., Bilingual and Multilingual Education, Encyclopedia of Language and Education. Cham: Springer, pp. 471–88.Google Scholar
Skutnabb-Kangas, T., Phillipson, R., Mohanty, A. K., & Panda, M. (2009). Social Justice through Multilingual Education. Bristol: Multilingual Matters.Google Scholar
Somers, T. (2017). Content and language integrated learning and the inclusion of immigrant minority language students: A research review. International Review of Education, 63, 495–520.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vaish, V. (2008). Biliteracy and Globalization: English Language Education in India. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.Google Scholar
van Ginkel, A. J. (2017). Early language learning in complex linguistic settings: Insights from Africa. In Enever, J. & Lindgren, E., eds., Early Language Learning: Complexity and Mixed Methods. Bristol: Multilingual Matters, pp. 9–23.Google Scholar
Weber, J.-J. (2014) Flexible Multilingual Education: Putting Children’s Needs First. Bristol: Multilingual Matters.Google Scholar
Wildsmith-Cromarty, R., & Balfour, R. J. (2019). Language learning and teaching in South African primary schools. Language Teaching, 52, 296–317.Google Scholar
Ytsma, J. (2001). Towards a typology of trilingual primary education. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 4, 11–22.Google Scholar
Zhou, M. L. (2001). The politics of bilingual education and educational levels in ethnic minority communities in China. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 4(2), 125–49.Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure [email protected] is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×