Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-6bf8c574d5-l72pf Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-03-04T08:17:26.497Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

9 - One Size Does Not Fit All

Behavioural Interventions to Promote Vaccination

from Part I - Evidence from Experiments and Behavioural Insights

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  31 January 2025

By
Ilana Brody ,
Silvia Saccardo  and
Hengchen Dai
Edited by
Joan Costa-Font  and
Matteo M. Galizzi
Joan Costa-Font
Affiliation:
London School of Economics and Political Science
Matteo M. Galizzi
Affiliation:
London School of Economics and Political Science
Get access

Summary

In this chapter, we first review factors that may either produce vaccine hesitancy or lead people with favourable attitudes towards a vaccine to not get vaccinated soon enough. Then we propose behavioural science strategies for tackling these barriers to vaccine uptake and demonstrate that effective solutions vary based on individuals’ existing motivation to get vaccinated. This chapter ultimately seeks to synthesise behavioural science insights about promoting vaccinations and to highlight that aligning the intervention to the cause of individuals’ vaccination problem is key for effectively moving the needle for everyone.

Keywords

vaccinationsrisk communicationnudges
Type
Chapter
Information
Behavioural Economics and Policy for Pandemics
Insights from Responses to COVID-19
 , pp. 148 - 190
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2024

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Adams, J., Bateman, B., Becker, F., Cresswell, T., Flynn, D., McNaughton, R., et al. (2015). Effectiveness and acceptability of parental financial incentives and quasi-mandatory schemes for increasing uptake of vaccinations in preschool children: Systematic review, qualitative study and discrete choice experiment. Health Technology Assessment, 19(94), 1–176.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Agley, J., & Xiao, Y. (2021). Misinformation about COVID-19: Evidence for differential latent profiles and a strong association with trust in science. BMC Public Health, 21(1), 89. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-020-10103-xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Agranov, M., Elliott, M., & Ortoleva, P. (2021). The importance of social norms against strategic effects: The case of Covid-19 vaccine uptake. Economics Letters, 206, 109979. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econlet.2021.109979CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ajzen, I. (1991). The theory of planned behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 50(2), 179–211.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Akerlof, G. A., & Kranton, R. E. (2000). Economics and identity. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 115(3), 715–753. https://doi.org/10.1162/003355300554881CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Alatas, V., Chandrasekhar, A., Mobius, M., Olken, B., & Paladines, C. (2019). When celebrities speak: A nationwide Twitter experiment promoting vaccination in Indonesia. Working Paper 25589. National Bureau of Economic Research. https://doi.org/10.3386/w25589CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Alsan, M., & Eichmeyer, S. (2021). Experimental evidence on the effectiveness of non-experts for improving vaccine demand. Working Paper 28593. National Bureau of Economic Research. https://doi.org/10.3386/w28593CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Alsan, M., Garrick, O., & Graziani, G. (2019). Does diversity matter for health? Experimental evidence from Oakland. American Economic Review, 109(12), 4071–4111.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Alsan, M., Stanford, F. C., Banerjee, A., Breza, E., Chandrasekhar, A. G., Eichmeyer, S., et al. (2021). Comparison of knowledge and information-seeking behavior after general COVID-19 public health messages and messages tailored for Black and Latinx communities: A randomized controlled trial. Annals of Internal Medicine, 174(4), 484–492. https://doi.org/10.7326/M20-6141CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Amin, A. B., Bednarczyk, R. A., Ray, C. E., Melchiori, K. J., Graham, J., Huntsinger, J. R., & Omer, S. B. (2017). Association of moral values with vaccine hesitancy. Nature Human Behaviour, 1(12), 873–880.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ashworth, M., Thunström, L., Cherry, T. L., Newbold, S. C., & Finnoff, D. C. (2021). Emphasize personal health benefits to boost COVID-19 vaccination rates. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 118(32), e2108225118. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2108225118CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Austin, J., Sigurdsson, S. O., & Rubin, Y. S. (2006). An examination of the effects of delayed versus immediate prompts on safety belt use. Environment and Behavior, 38(1), 140–149. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013916505276744CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bajaj, S. S., & Stanford, F. C. (2021). Beyond Tuskegee: Vaccine distrust and everyday racism. New England Journal of Medicine, 384(5), e12. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMpv2035827CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Balu, R., Dechausay, N., & Anzelone, C. (2018). An organizational approach to applying behavioral insights to policy: Center for Applied Behavioral Science at MDRC. In Ruggeri, K. (ed.), Behavioral Insights for Public Policy (pp. 200–217). Routledge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Banerjee, A., Alsan, M., Breza, E., Chandrasekhar, A., Chowdhury, A., Duflo, E., et al. (2020). Messages on COVID-19 prevention in India increased symptoms reporting and adherence to preventive behaviors among 25 million recipients with similar effects on non-recipient members of their communities. Working Paper 27496. National Bureau of Economic Research. https://doi.org/10.3386/w27496CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Banerjee, A., Chandrasekhar, A., Dalpath, S., Duflo, E., Floretta, J., Jackson, M., et al. (2021). Selecting the most effective nudge: Evidence from a large-scale experiment on immunization. Working Paper 28726. National Bureau of Economic Research. https://doi.org/10.3386/w28726CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bartoš, V., Bauer, M., Cahlíková, J., & Chytilová, J. (2022). Communicating doctor’s consensus persistently increases COVID-19 vaccinations. Nature, 606, 542–549. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-022-04805-yCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bem, D. J. (1972). Self-perception theory. In Berkowitz, L. (ed.), Advances in Experimental Social Psychology (vol. 6, pp. 1–62). Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-2601(08)60024-6Google Scholar
Bénabou, R., & Tirole, J. (2006). A Cognitive Theory of Identity, Dignity, and Taboos. Princeton University Press. www.Econ.Yale.Edu//~Shiller/Behmacro/2006-11/Benabou-Tirole.PdfGoogle Scholar
Bénabou, R., & Tirole, J. (2011). Identity, morals, and taboos: Beliefs as assets. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 126(2), 805–855.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Berliner Senderey, A., Ohana, R., Perchik, S., Erev, I., & Balicer, R. (2021). Encouraging uptake of the COVID-19 vaccine through behaviorally informed interventions: National real-world evidence from Israel. Social Science Research Network. https://ssrn.com/abstract=3852345 or https://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3852345CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bertrand, M., Mullainathan, S., & Shafir, E. (2006). Behavioral economics and marketing in aid of decision making among the poor. Journal of Public Policy & Marketing, 25(1), 8–23.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Betsch, C., Böhm, R., & Chapman, G. B. (2015). Using behavioral insights to increase vaccination policy effectiveness. Policy Insights from the Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 2(1), 61–73. https://doi.org/10.1177/2372732215600716CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Betsch, C., Böhm, R., Korn, L., & Holtmann, C. (2017). On the benefits of explaining herd immunity in vaccine advocacy. Nature Human Behaviour, 1(3), 1–6.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Betsch, C., & Sachse, K. (2013). Debunking vaccination myths: Strong risk negations can increase perceived vaccination risks. Health Psychology, 32(2), 146–155. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0027387CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bhargava, S., & Manoli, D. (2015). Psychological frictions and the incomplete take-up of social benefits: Evidence from an IRS field experiment. American Economic Review, 105(11), 3489–3529. https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.20121493CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bogard, J. E., Fox, C. R., & Goldstein, N. J. (2022). The implied exclusivity effect: Promoting choice through reserved labeling. Unpublished Working Paper.Google Scholar
Bogart, L. M., Dong, L., Gandhi, P., Ryan, S., Smith, T., Klein, D., et al. (2021). What Contributes to COVID-19 Vaccine Hesitancy in Black Communities, and How Can It Be Addressed? RAND Corporation. https://doi.org/10.7249/RRA1110-1Google Scholar
Böhm, R., & Betsch, C. (2022). Prosocial vaccination. Current Opinion in Psychology, 43, 307–311. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2021.08.010CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Böhm, R., Meier, N. W., Groß, M., Korn, L., & Betsch, C. (2019). The willingness to vaccinate increases when vaccination protects others who have low responsibility for not being vaccinated. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 42(3), 381–391.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brewer, N. T., Chapman, G. B., Gibbons, F. X., Gerrard, M., McCaul, K. D., & Weinstein, N. D. (2007). Meta-analysis of the relationship between risk perception and health behavior: The example of vaccination. Health Psychology, 26(2), 136–145. https://doi.org/10.1037/0278-6133.26.2.136CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brewer, N. T., Chapman, G. B., Rothman, A. J., Leask, J., & Kempe, A. (2017). Increasing vaccination: Putting psychological science into action. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 18(3), 149–207. https://doi.org/10.1177/1529100618760521CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brewer, N. T., DeFrank, J. T., & Gilkey, M. B. (2016). Anticipated regret and health behavior: A meta-analysis. Health Psychology, 35(11), 1264–1275. https://doi.org/10.1037/hea0000294CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Briss, P. A., Rodewald, L. E., Hinman, A. R., Shefer, A. M., Strikas, R. A., Bernier, R. R., et al. (2000). Reviews of evidence regarding interventions to improve vaccination coverage in children, adolescents, and adults. The Task Force on Community Preventive Services. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 18(1 Supp1), 97–140. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0749-3797(99)00118-XCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brody, I., Dai, H., Saccardo, S., Milkman, K., Patel, M., Gromet, D., & Duckworth, A. (2022a). Provide information or encourage follow-through? Effects of behavioral interventions depend on baseline motivation. Unpublished Working Paper.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brody, I., Hershfield, H., Milkman, K., Patel, M., Gromet, D., & Duckworth, A. (2022b). Leveraging past adversity to increase preventative behavior. Working Paper.Google Scholar
Bronchetti, E. T., Huffman, D. B., & Magenheim, E. (2015). Attention, intentions, and follow-through in preventive health behavior: Field experimental evidence on flu vaccination. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 116, 270–291.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bryan, C. J., Tipton, E., & Yeager, D. S. (2021). Behavioural science is unlikely to change the world without a heterogeneity revolution. Nature Human Behaviour, 5, 980–989. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-021-01143-3CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bryan, G., Karlan, D., & Nelson, S. (2010). Commitment devices. Annual Review of Economics, 2(1), 671–698. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.economics.102308.124324CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bursztyn, L., & Jensen, R. (2017). Social image and economic behavior in the field: Identifying, understanding, and shaping social pressure. Annual Review of Economics, 9, 131–153.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Campos-Mercade, P., Meier, A. N., Schneider, F. H., Meier, S., Pope, D., & Wengström, E. (2021a). Monetary incentives increase COVID-19 vaccinations. Science, 374(6569), 879–882. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.abm0475CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Campos-Mercade, P., Meier, A. N., Schneider, F. H., & Wengström, E. (2021b). Prosociality predicts health behaviors during the COVID-19 pandemic. Journal of Public Economics, 195, 104367. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpubeco.2021.104367CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
CDC. (2022). COVID Data Tracker. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 10 March. https://covid.cdc.gov/covid-data-trackerGoogle Scholar
Chang, T., Jacobson, M., Shah, M., Pramanik, R., & Shah, S. (2021). Financial incentives and other nudges do not increase COVID-19 vaccinations among the vaccine hesitant. Working Paper w29403. National Bureau of Economic Research. https://doi.org/10.3386/w29403CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chapman, G. B., & Coups, E. J. (1999). Predictors of Influenza vaccine acceptance among healthy adults. Preventive Medicine, 29(4), 249–262. https://doi.org/10.1006/pmed.1999.0535CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chapman, G. B., Li, M., Colby, H., & Yoon, H. (2010). Opting in vs opting out of influenza vaccination. JAMA, 304(1), 43. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2010.892CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chapman, G. B., Li, M., Leventhal, H., & Leventhal, E. A. (2016). Default clinic appointments promote influenza vaccination uptake without a displacement effect. Behavioral Science & Policy, 2(2), 40–50.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chater, N., & Loewenstein, G. (2022). The i-frame and the s-frame: How focusing on the individual-level solutions has led behavioral public policy astray. Scholarly Paper No. 4046264. Social Science Research Network. https://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=4046264CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chu, J., Pink, S. L., & Willer, R. (2021). Religious identity cues increase vaccination intentions and trust in medical experts among American Christians. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 118(49), e2106481118. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2106481118CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Congdon, W. J., Kling, J. R., & Mullainathan, S. (2011). Policy and Choice: Public Finance through the Lens of Behavioral Economics. Brookings Institution Press.Google Scholar
Dai, H., Saccardo, S., Han, M. A., Roh, L., Raja, N., Vangala, S., et al. (2021). Behavioral nudges increase COVID-19 vaccinations. Nature, 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-021-03843-2Google ScholarPubMed
Danza, P., Koo, T. H., Haddix, M., Fisher, R., Traub, E., OYong, K., & Balter, S. (2022). SARS-CoV-2 infection and hospitalization among adults aged ≥18 years, by vaccination status, before and during SARS-CoV-2 B.1.1.529 (Omicron) variant predominance – Los Angeles County, California, November 7, 2021–January 8, 2022. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 71(5), 177–181. https://doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.mm7105e1CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Delfino, D. (2021, June 24). Incentives for COVID-19 Vaccination: Food, Cash, & Other Perks. Health Topic. GoodRx Health. www.goodrx.com/health-topic/vaccines/covid-19-vaccination-incentivesGoogle Scholar
Ebbinghaus, H. (2013). Memory: A contribution to experimental psychology. Annals of Neurosciences, 20(4), 155.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ericson, K. M., & Laibson, D. (2019). Intertemporal choice. In Bernheim, B. D., DellaVigna, S., Laibson, D. (eds.), Handbook of Behavioral Economics: Applications and Foundations 1 (vol. 2, pp. 1–67). Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.hesbe.2018.12.001Google Scholar
Falagas, M. E., & Zarkadoulia, E. (2008). Factors associated with suboptimal compliance to vaccinations in children in developed countries: A systematic review. Current Medical Research and Opinion, 24(6), 1719–1741. https://doi.org/10.1185/03007990802085692CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Falomir-Pichastor, J. M., Toscani, L., & Despointes, S. H. (2009). Determinants of flu vaccination among nurses: The effects of group identification and professional responsibility. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 58(1), 42–58.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fishbach, A., Dhar, R., & Zhang, Y. (2006). Subgoals as substitutes or complements: The role of goal accessibility. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 91(2), 232.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fishbach, A., Friedman, R. S., & Kruglanski, A. W. (2003). Leading us not into temptation: Momentary allurements elicit overriding goal activation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84(2), 296.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fridman, A., Gershon, R., & Gneezy, A. (2021). COVID-19 and vaccine hesitancy: A longitudinal study. PLOS ONE, 16(4), e0250123. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0250123CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gabaix, X. (2019). Behavioral inattention. In Bernheim, B. D., DellaVigna, S., Laibson, D. (eds.), Handbook of Behavioral Economics: Applications and Foundations 1 (vol. 2, pp. 261–343). Elsevier.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Galasso, V., Pons, V., Profeta, P., Becher, M., Brouard, S., & Foucault, M. (2022). From anti-vax intentions to vaccination: Panel and experimental evidence from nine countries. Working Paper No. w29741. National Bureau of Economic Research. https://doi.org/10.3386/w29741CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Galizzi, M. M., Lau, K., Miraldo, M., & Hauck, K. (2022). Bandwagoning, free‐riding and heterogeneity in influenza vaccine decisions: An online experiment. Health Economics, 31(4), 614–646. https://doi.org/10.1002/hec.4467CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gneezy, U., Kajackaite, A., & Meier, S. (2020). Incentive-based interventions. In Hagger, M. S., Cameron, L. D., Hamilton, K., Hankonen, N., & Lintunen, T. (eds.), The Handbook of Behavior Change (pp. 523–536). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108677318.036CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gollwitzer, P. M. (1999). Implementation intentions: Strong effects of simple plans. American Psychologist, 54(7), 493–503. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.54.7.493CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gollwitzer, P. M., & Sheeran, P. (2006). Implementation intentions and goal achievement: A meta‐analysis of effects and processes. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 38, 69–119.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gollwitzer, P. M., & Sheeran, P. (2009). Self‐regulation of consumer decision making and behavior: The role of implementation intentions. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 19(4), 593–607.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Greenwood, B. N., Hardeman, R. R., Huang, L., & Sojourner, A. (2020). Physician–patient racial concordance and disparities in birthing mortality for newborns. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 117(35), 21194–21200. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1913405117CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Haaland, I., Roth, C., & Wohlfart, J. (2020). Designing information provision experiments. Scholarly Paper No. 3638879. Social Science Research Network. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3638879CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hakim, H., Provencher, T., Chambers, C. T., Driedger, S. M., Dubé, E., Gavaruzzi, T., et al. (2019). Interventions to help people understand community immunity: A systematic review. Vaccine, 37(2), 235–247.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Heinrich-Morrison, K., McLellan, S., McGinnes, U., Carroll, B., Watson, K., Bass, P., et al. (2015). An effective strategy for influenza vaccination of healthcare workers in Australia: Experience at a large health service without a mandatory policy. BMC Infectious Diseases, 15(1), 42. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12879-015-0765-7CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hershfield, H., & Brody, I. (2021). How Elvis got Americans to accept the Polio Vaccine. Scientific American, 18 January www.scientificamerican.com/article/how-elvis-got-americans-to-accept-the-polio-vaccine/Google Scholar
Higgins, S. T., Klemperer, E. M., & Coleman, S. R. M. (2021). Looking to the empirical literature on the potential for financial incentives to enhance adherence with COVID-19 vaccination. Preventive Medicine, 145, 106421. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ypmed.2021.106421CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hoffmann, M., Mosquera, R., & Chadi, A. (2020). Vaccines at work. Discussion Paper No. 12939. Institute of Labor Economics (IZA). https://econpapers.repec.org/paper/izaizadps/dp12939.htmCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Horne, Z., Powell, D., Hummel, J. E., & Holyoak, K. J. (2015). Countering antivaccination attitudes. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 112(33), 10321–10324. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1504019112CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Huynh, H. P., Zsila, Á., & Martinez-Berman, L. (2021). Psychosocial predictors of intention to vaccinate against the Coronavirus (COVID-19). Behavioral Medicine, 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1080/08964289.2021.1990006Google ScholarPubMed
Iyengar, S. S., & Lepper, M. R. (2000). When choice is demotivating: Can one desire too much of a good thing? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79(6), 995.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jackson, C., Cheater, F. M., Harrison, W., Peacock, R., Bekker, H., West, R., & Leese, B. (2011). Randomised cluster trial to support informed parental decision-making for the MMR vaccine. BMC Public Health, 11(1), 475. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-11-475CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jacobson Vann, J. C., Jacobson, R. M., Coyne-Beasley, T., Asafu-Adjei, J. K., & Szilagyi, P. G. (2018). Patient reminder and recall interventions to improve immunization rates. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, (1). https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD003941.pub3Google ScholarPubMed
Jaiswal, J., LoSchiavo, C., & Perlman, D. C. (2020). Disinformation, misinformation and inequality-driven mistrust in the time of COVID-19: Lessons unlearned from AIDS denialism. AIDS and Behavior, 24(10), 2776–2780. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10461-020-02925-yCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jennings, W., Stoker, G., Bunting, H., Valgarðsson, V. O., Gaskell, J., Devine, D., et al. (2021). Lack of trust, conspiracy beliefs, and social media use predict COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy. Vaccines, 9(6), 593. https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines9060593CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jensen, U. T., Ayers, S., & Koskan, A. M. (2022). Video-based messages to reduce COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy and nudge vaccination intentions. PLOS ONE, 17(4), e0265736. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0265736CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jurkowitz, M., & Mitchell, A. (2020). Cable TV and COVID-19: How Americans perceive the outbreak and view media coverage differ by main news source. Pew Research Center.Google Scholar
Kahan, D. M. (2017). Misconceptions, misinformation, and the logic of identity-protective cognition. Scholarly Paper No. 2973067. Social Science Research Network. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2973067CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kahan, D. M., Peters, E., Wittlin, M., Slovic, P., Ouellette, L. L., Braman, D., & Mandel, G. N. (2012). The polarizing impact of science literacy and numeracy on perceived climate change risks. Scholarly Paper No. 2193133. Social Science Research Network. https://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=2193133CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kahneman, D. (1973). Attention and Effort, vol. 1063. Prentice-Hall.Google Scholar
Kaplan, R. M., & Milstein, A. (2021). Influence of a COVID-19 vaccine’s effectiveness and safety profile on vaccination acceptance. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 118(10), e2021726118. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2021726118CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Karing, A. (2019). Social signaling and health behavior in low-income countries. Doctoral dissertation, UC Berkeley. https://escholarship.org/uc/item/6w70d701Google Scholar
Kaufman, J., Ryan, R., Walsh, L., Horey, D., Leask, J., Robinson, P. et al. (2018). Face to face interventions for informing or educating parents about early childhood vaccination. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 5(5), CD10038. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD010038Google ScholarPubMed
Keppeler, F., Sievert, M., & Jilke, S. (2021). Increasing Covid-19 vaccination intentions through a local government vaccination campaign: A field experiment on psychological ownership. SSRN Electronic Journal. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3905470CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Klotz, P. A. (2022). Leadership communication and COVID-19 vaccination hesitancy. MAGKS Papers on Economics 202206. Philipps-Universität Marburg, Faculty of Business Administration and Economics, Department of Economics (Volkswirtschaftliche Abteilung).Google Scholar
Klüver, H., Hartmann, F., Humphreys, M., Geissler, F., & Giesecke, J. (2021). Incentives can spur COVID-19 vaccination uptake. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 118(36).CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Korn, L., Böhm, R., Meier, N. W., & Betsch, C. (2020). Vaccination as a social contract. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 117(26), 14890–14899.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kouzy, R., Abi Jaoude, J., Kraitem, A., El Alam, M. B., Karam, B., Adib, E., et al. (2020). Coronavirus goes viral: Quantifying the COVID-19 misinformation epidemic on Twitter. Cureus, 12(3).Google ScholarPubMed
Kreps, S., Prasad, S., Brownstein, J. S., Hswen, Y., Garibaldi, B. T., Zhang, B., & Kriner, D. L. (2020). Factors associated with US adults’ likelihood of accepting COVID-19 vaccination. JAMA Network Open, 3(10), e2025594. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2020.25594CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kruglanski, A. W., Shah, J. Y., Fishbach, A., Friedman, R., Chun, W. Y., & Sleeth-Keppler, D. (2002). A theory of goal systems. In Advances in Experimental Social Psychology (vol. 34, pp. 331–378). Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-2601(02)80008-9Google Scholar
Laibson, D. (1997). Golden eggs and hyperbolic discounting. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 112(2), 443–478.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lehmann, B. A., Chapman, G. B., Franssen, F. M., Kok, G., & Ruiter, R. A. (2016). Changing the default to promote influenza vaccination among health care workers. Vaccine, 34(11), 1389–1392. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vaccine.2016.01.046CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lewandowsky, S., Ecker, U. K. H., Seifert, C. M., Schwarz, N., & Cook, J. (2012). Misinformation and its correction: Continued influence and successful debiasing. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 13(3), 106–131. https://doi.org/10.1177/1529100612451018CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Li, M., Taylor, E. G., Atkins, K. E., Chapman, G. B., & Galvani, A. P. (2016). Stimulating influenza vaccination via prosocial motives. PLOS ONE, 11(7), e0159780. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0159780Google ScholarPubMed
Loomba, S., de Figueiredo, A., Piatek, S. J., de Graaf, K., & Larson, H. J. (2021). Measuring the impact of COVID-19 vaccine misinformation on vaccination intent in the UK and USA. Nature Human Behaviour, 5(3), 337–348. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-021-01056-1CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lorenz, T. (2021). To fight vaccine lies, authorities recruit an ‘influencer army’. The New York Times, 1 August. www.nytimes.com/2021/08/01/technology/vaccine-lies-influencer-army.htmlGoogle Scholar
MacDonald, N. E. (2015). Vaccine hesitancy: Definition, scope and determinants. Vaccine, 33(34), 4161–4164. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vaccine.2015.04.036CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McKenzie, C. R., Liersch, M. J., & Finkelstein, S. R. (2006). Recommendations implicit in policy defaults. Psychological Science, 17(5), 414–420.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McLamore, Q., Syropoulos, S., Leidner, B., Hirschberger, G., Young, K., Zein, R. A., et al. (2022). Trust in scientific information mediates associations between conservatism and coronavirus responses in the U.S., but few other nations. Scientific Reports, 12(1), 3724. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-07508-6CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mekonnen, Z. A., Gelaye, K. A., Were, M. C., Gashu, K. D., & Tilahun, B. C. (2019). Effect of mobile text message reminders on routine childhood vaccination: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Systematic Reviews, 8(1), 1–14.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mian, A., & Khan, S. (2020). Coronavirus: The spread of misinformation. BMC Medicine, 18(1), 89. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12916-020-01556-3CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Milkman, K. L. (2021). How to Change: The Science of Getting from Where You Are to Where You Want to Be. Portfolio/Penguin, an imprint of Penguin Random House LLC.Google Scholar
Milkman, K. L., Beshears, J., Choi, J. J., Laibson, D., & Madrian, B. C. (2011). Using implementation intentions prompts to enhance influenza vaccination rates. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 108(26), 10415–10420. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1103170108CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Milkman, K. L., Gandhi, L., Patel, M. S., Graci, H. N., Gromet, D. M., Ho, H., et al. (2022). A 680,000-person megastudy of nudges to encourage vaccination in pharmacies. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 119(6). https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2115126119CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Milkman, K. L., Gromet, D., Ho, H., Kay, J. S., Lee, T. W., Pandiloski, P., et al. (2021a). Megastudies improve the impact of applied behavioural science. Nature, 600(7889), 478–483. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-021-04128-4CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Milkman, K. L., Minson, J. A., & Volpp, K. G. M. (2014). Holding the hunger games hostage at the gym: An evaluation of temptation bundling. Management Science, 60(2), 283–299. https://doi.org/10.1287/mnsc.2013.1784CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Milkman, K. L., Patel, M. S., Gandhi, L., Graci, H. N., Gromet, D. M., Ho, H., et al. (2021b). A megastudy of text-based nudges encouraging patients to get vaccinated at an upcoming doctor’s appointment. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 118(20). https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2101165118CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moehring, A., Collis, A., Garimella, K., Rahimian, M. A., Aral, S., & Eckles, D. (2021). Surfacing norms to increase vaccine acceptance. PsyArXiv Preprint. https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/srv6tCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Murphy, J., Vallières, F., Bentall, R. P., Shevlin, M., McBride, O., Hartman, T. K., et al. (2021). Psychological characteristics associated with COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy and resistance in Ireland and the United Kingdom. Nature Communications, 12(1), 29. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-20226-9CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nyhan, B., & Reifler, J. (2015). Does correcting myths about the flu vaccine work? An experimental evaluation of the effects of corrective information. Vaccine, 33(3), 459–464. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vaccine.2014.11.017CrossRefGoogle Scholar
O’Donoghue, T., & Rabin, M. (1999). Doing it now or later. American Economic Review, 89(1), 103–124.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pandey, P., Sehgal, A. R., Riboud, M., Levine, D., & Goyal, M. (2007). Informing resource-poor populations and the delivery of entitled health and social services in rural India: A cluster randomized controlled trial. JAMA, 298(16), 1867. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.298.16.1867CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Parsons, J. E., Newby, K. V., & French, D. P. (2018). Do interventions containing risk messages increase risk appraisal and the subsequent vaccination intentions and uptake? A systematic review and meta‐analysis. British Journal of Health Psychology, 23(4), 1084–1106. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjhp.12340CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pennycook, G., Epstein, Z., Mosleh, M., Arechar, A. A., Eckles, D., & Rand, D. G. (2021). Shifting attention to accuracy can reduce misinformation online. Nature, 592(7855), 590–595. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-021-03344-2CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pennycook, G., McPhetres, J., Zhang, Y., Lu, J. G., & Rand, D. G. (2020). Fighting COVID-19 misinformation on social media: Experimental evidence for a scalable accuracy-nudge intervention. Psychological Science, 31(7), 770–780. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797620939054CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pfattheicher, S., Petersen, M. B., & Böhm, R. (2021). Information about herd immunity through vaccination and empathy promote COVID-19 vaccination intentions. Health Psychology, 41(2), 85–93. https://doi.org/10.1037/hea0001096CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pink, S. L., Chu, J., Druckman, J. N., Rand, D. G., & Willer, R. (2021). Elite party cues increase vaccination intentions among Republicans. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 118(32), e2106559118. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2106559118CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pittman, M. (2020). Accountability moderates the effects of egoistic and altruistic appeals in prosocial messages. Journal of Consumer Marketing, 37(7), 807–820. https://doi.org/10.1108/JCM-07-2018-2751CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rabb, N., Glick, D., Houston, A., Bowers, J., & Yokum, D. (2021a). No evidence that collective-good appeals best promote COVID-related health behaviors. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 118(14), e2100662118. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2100662118CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rabb, N., Swindal, M., Glick, D., Bowers, J., Tomasulo, A., Oyelami, Z., et al. (2021b). Nudges do not increase COVID-19 vaccinations in a longer-eligible population. Unpublished Working Paper.Google Scholar
Rabb, N., Swindal, M., Glick, D., Bowers, J., Tomasulo, A., Oyelami, Z., et al. (2022). Evidence from a statewide vaccination RCT shows the limits of nudges. Nature, 604(7904), E1–E7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Razai, M. S., Chaudhry, U. A. R., Doerholt, K., Bauld, L., & Majeed, A. (2021). Covid-19 vaccination hesitancy. British Medical Journal, n1138. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.n1138Google ScholarPubMed
Reimer, N. K., Atari, M., Karimi-Malekabadi, F., Trager, J., Kennedy, B., Graham, J., & Dehghani, M. (2021). Moral values predict county-level COVID-19 vaccination rates in the United States. American Psychologist, 77(6),743–759. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0001020.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rogers, T., & Milkman, K. L. (2016). Reminders through association. Psychological Science, 27(7), 973–986.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rogers, T., Milkman, K. L., & Volpp, K. G. (2014). Commitment devices: Using initiatives to change behavior. JAMA, 311(20), 2065–2066. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2014.3485CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Saccardo, S., Dai, H., Han, M., Roh, L., Raja, N., Vangala, S., et al. (2022). The impact and limits of nudges: Evidence from large-scale RCTs. SSRN Electronic Journal. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3971192Google Scholar
Santos, H. C., Goren, A., Chabris, C. F., & Meyer, M. N. (2021). Effect of targeted behavioral science messages on COVID-19 vaccination registration among employees of a large health system: A randomized trial. JAMA Network Open, 4(7), e2118702–e2118702.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Scheibehenne, B., Greifeneder, R., & Todd, P. M. (2010). Can there ever be too many options? A meta-analytic review of choice overload. Journal of Consumer Research, 37(3), 409–425. https://doi.org/10.1086/651235CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schmid, P., Rauber, D., Betsch, C., Lidolt, G., & Denker, M.-L. (2017). Barriers of influenza vaccination intention and behavior: A systematic review of Influenza vaccine hesitancy, 2005–2016. PLOS ONE, 12(1), e0170550. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0170550CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schoeppe, J., Cheadle, A., Melton, M., Faubion, T., Miller, C., Matthys, J., & Hsu, C. (2017). The immunity community: A community engagement strategy for reducing vaccine hesitancy. Health Promotion Practice, 18(5), 654–661. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524839917697303CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Serra-Garcia, M., & Szech, N. (2021). Choice architecture and incentives increase COVID-19 vaccine intentions and test demand. SSRN Electronic Journal. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3818182CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shah, J. Y., & Kruglanski, A. W. (2002). Priming against your will: How accessible alternatives affect goal pursuit. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 38(4), 368–383.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sheeran, P., Harris, P. R., & Epton, T. (2014). Does heightening risk appraisals change people’s intentions and behavior? A meta-analysis of experimental studies. Psychological Bulletin, 140(2), 511.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sheeran, P., & Webb, T. L. (2016). The intention–behavior gap. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 10(9), 503–518.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sprengholz, P., Eitze, S., Felgendreff, L., Korn, L., & Betsch, C. (2021). Money is not everything: Experimental evidence that payments do not increase willingness to be vaccinated against COVID-19. Journal of Medical Ethics, 47(8), 547–548. https://doi.org/10.1136/medethics-2020-107122CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sunstein, C. R. (2014). Nudging: A very short guide. Journal of Consumer Policy, 37(4), 583–588. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10603-014-9273-1CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tan, S. (2021). Shot and a beer: Erie County partners with breweries for pop-up vaccine clinics. The Buffalo News, 8 June. https://buffalonews.com/news/local/shot-and-a-beer-erie-county-partners-with-breweries-for-pop-up-vaccine-clinics/article_99eaf386-a76c-11eb-8841-331e154637ed.htmlGoogle Scholar
Torres, C., Ogbu-Nwobodo, L., Alsan, M., Stanford, F. C., Banerjee, A., Breza, E., et al. (2021). Effect of physician-delivered COVID-19 public health messages and messages acknowledging racial inequity on Black and White adults’ knowledge, beliefs, and practices related to COVID-19: A randomized clinical trial. JAMA Network Open, 4(7), e2117115. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2021.17115CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Trueblood, J. S., Sussman, A. B., & O’Leary, D. (2022). The role of risk preferences in responses to messaging about COVID-19 vaccine take-up. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 13(1), 311–319. https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550621999622CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Umana, J. (2021). This COVID-19 vaccine shot comes with a free beer. WTOP News, 29 May. https://wtop.com/loudoun-county/2021/05/this-covid-19-vaccine-shot-comes-with-a-free-beer/Google Scholar
Vet, R., Wit, J. B. de, & Das, E. (2014). The role of implementation intention formation in promoting hepatitis B vaccination uptake among men who have sex with men. International Journal of STD & AIDS, 25(2), 122–129.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Williams, S. E. (2014). What are the factors that contribute to parental vaccine-hesitancy and what can we do about it? Human Vaccines & Immunotherapeutics, 10(9), 2584–2596. https://doi.org/10.4161/hv.28596CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Williams, S. E., Rothman, R. L., Offit, P. A., Schaffner, W., Sullivan, M., & Edwards, K. M. (2013). A randomized trial to increase acceptance of childhood vaccines by vaccine-hesitant parents: A pilot study. Academic Pediatrics, 13(5), 475–480. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.acap.2013.03.011CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wong, C. A., Pilkington, W., Doherty, I. A., Zhu, Z., Gawande, H., Kumar, D., & Brewer, N. T. (2022). Guaranteed financial incentives for COVID-19 vaccination: A pilot program in North Carolina. JAMA Internal Medicine, 182(1), 78–80.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
World Health Organization. (2019). Ten threats to global health in 2019. World Health Organization Newsroom Spotlight. www.who.int/news-room/spotlight/ten-threats-to-global-health-in-2019Google Scholar
Xiao, X., Borah, P., & Su, Y. (2021). The dangers of blind trust: Examining the interplay among social media news use, misinformation identification, and news trust on conspiracy beliefs. Public Understanding of Science, 30(8), 977–992. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963662521998025CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zauberman, G., & LynchJr, J. G. (2005). Resource slack and propensity to discount delayed investments of time versus money. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 134(1), 23.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure [email protected] is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×