1 - The literary scene before the rise of the Kung-an school

Summary

Literary criticism in the late Ming

Literary criticism flourished during the late Ming as never before. Never in the history of Chinese literature had so many educated men dedicated themselves to the study of literary theories. During the last century of the Ming dynasty literary theory no longer remained the exclusive preserve of theorists; it became a popular subject among many men of letters. As one of the major channels through which writers expressed themselves, literary criticism became almost inseparable from philosophy and was more closely related to common sentiment and feeling than had ever before been the case.

Late Ming poets and essayists consciously tried to put their theories into practice. Although applications of theory were not always consistent in their works, their enthusiasm and sincerity about practicing what they believed cannot be questioned. It was this enthusiasm that turned late Ming literary criticism into a highly polemical subject, so much so that a skeptical and adversarial tone colored almost all discussions of literature. As soon as one critic established a theoretical basis for criticism, it was immediately subjected to revision by another critic. Late Ming literary criticism is consequently characterized by a wide range of distinctive attitudes toward literature and a variety of literary movements.

The development of literary criticism during the Ming dynasty coincided with the decline of classical poetry and prose. This decline was most often attributed to the adoption of the eight-legged essay (pa-ku wen) in the civil examination system.