Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-745bb68f8f-l4dxg Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-01-13T05:34:41.072Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Chapter 5 - The Intersection of Race, Gender/Sex, and Age in Emotion Perception from Faces and Bodies

from Part II - Aging and Aging Stereotypes

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  07 December 2023

By
Nicole Hedgecoth ,
Natalie Strand  and
Reginald B. Adams
Edited by
Ursula Hess ,
Reginald B. Adams, Jr.  and
Robert E. Kleck
Ursula Hess
Affiliation:
Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin
Reginald B. Adams, Jr.
Affiliation:
Pennsylvania State University
Robert E. Kleck
Affiliation:
Dartmouth College, New Hampshire
Get access

Summary

Emotion information conveyed by the aging face and body provides essential cues that guide our impressions of older individuals. The way we interpret older adults’ emotions is not only influenced by age-related emotional stereotypes and phenotypic changes, but also varies as a function of race and gender/sex. The majority of previous work has investigated emotion perception by researching the effects of age, gender/sex, and race separately. Throughout this chapter, we review past work that examines emotion perception for various combinations of these identities, particularly age as a function of gender/sex and of race. Accordingly, we highlight the need for an intersectional perspective in research investigating emotion in the aging face and body, specifically one that considers the role of multiple identities in the expression of emotions.

Keywords

Emotion ExpressionAgingRaceGenderSexFace PerceptionBody Language
Type
Chapter
Information
Emotion Communication by the Aging Face and Body
A Multidisciplinary View
 , pp. 106 - 139
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2023

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Adams, R. B. Jr., Ambady, N., Nakayama, K., & Shimojo, S. (eds.), (2010). The science of social vision. New York: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Adams, R. B. Jr., Ambady, N., Macrae, C. N., & Kleck, R. E. (2006). Emotional expressions forecast approach-avoidance behavior. Motivation & Emotion, 30, 179–188. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-006-9020-2CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Adams, R. B. Jr., Albohn, D. N., Hedgecoth, N., Garrido, C. O., & Adams, K. D. (2022). Angry White faces: A contradiction of racial stereotypes and emotion-resembling appearance. Affective Science, 3(1), 46–61. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42761-021-00091-5CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Adams, R. B. Jr., Albohn, D. N., & Kveraga, K. (2017). Social vision: Applying a social-functional approach to face and expression perception. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 26(3), 243–248. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0963721417706392CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Adams, R. B. Jr., Franklin, R. G. Jr., Nelson, A. J., et al. (2011). Differentially tuned responses to severely restricted versus prolonged awareness of threat: A preliminary fMRI investigation. Brain and Cognition, 77(1), 113–119. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bandc.2011.05.001CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Adams, R. B. Jr., Garrido, C. O., Albohn, D. N., Hess, U., & Kleck, R. E. (2016). What facial appearance reveals over time: When perceived expressions in neutral faces reveal stable emotion dispositions. Frontiers in Psychology, 7, 986. https://www.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00986CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Adams, R. B. Jr., Gordon, H. L., Baird, A. A., Ambady, N., & Kleck, R. E. (2003). Effects of gaze on amygdala sensitivity to anger and fear faces. Science, 300(5625), 1536–1536. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1082244CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Adams, R. B. Jr., Hess, U., & Kleck, R. E. (2015). The intersection of gender-related facial appearance and facial displays of emotion. Emotion Review, 7(1), 5–13. https://doi.org/10.1177/1754073914544407CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Adams, R. B. Jr., & Kleck, R. E. (2003). Perceived gaze direction and the processing of facial displays of emotion. Psychological Science, 14(6), 644–647. https://doi.org/10.1046%2Fj.0956-7976.2003.psci_1479.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
AdamsJr., R. B. Jr., & Nelson, A. J. (2011). Intersecting identities and expressions: The compound nature of social perception. In The Oxford handbook of social neuroscience (pp. 394–403). Oxford: Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195342161.001.0001Google Scholar
Adams, R. B. Jr., Nelson, A. J., Soto, J. A., Hess, U., & Kleck, R. E. (2012). Emotion in the neutral face: A mechanism for impression formation? Cognition and Emotion, 26(3), 431–441. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2012.666502CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Adams, R. B. Jr., Pauker, K., & Weisbuch, M. (2010). Looking the other way: The role of gaze direction in the cross-race memory effect. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 46, 478–481.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Albohn, D. N., & Adams, R. B. Jr. (2020). Everyday beliefs about emotion perceptually derived from neutral facial appearance. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 264. www.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00264CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Albohn, D. N., & Adams, R. B. Jr. (2021). The expressive triad: Structure, color, and texture similarity of emotion expressions predict impressions of neutral faces. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 612923. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.612923CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Albohn, D. N., & Adams, R. B. Jr. (2022). The social face hypothesis. Affective Science 3(3), 539–545. http://doi.org/10.1007/s42761-022-00116-7CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Alexis, A. F., Grimes, P., Boyd, C., et al. (2019) Racial and ethnic differences in self-assessed facial aging in women: Results from a multinational study. Dermatologic Surgery, 45, 1635–1648. https://doi:10.1097/DSS.0000000000002237. PMID: 31702594CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Allport, G. W. (1954). The nature of prejudice. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.Google Scholar
Atkinson, A. P., Dittrich, W. H., Gemmell, A. J., & Young, A. W. (2004). Emotion perception from dynamic and static body expressions in point-light and full-light displays. Perception, 33(6), 717–746. https://doi.org/10.1068/p5096CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Aviezer, H., Trope, Y., & Todorov, A. (2012). Body cues, not facial expressions, discriminate between intense positive and negative emotions. Science, 338(6111), 1225–1229. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1224313CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barber, S. J., Lee, H., Becerra, J., & Tate, C. C. (2019). Emotional expressions affect perceptions of younger and older adults’ everyday competence. Psychology and Aging, 34(7), 991–1004. https://doi.org/10.1037/pag0000405CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Baron-Cohen, S. (1997). Theory of mind and face-processing: How do they interact in development and psychopathology? New York: John Wiley & Sons.Google Scholar
Becker, D. V. (2017). Facial gender interferes with decisions about facial expressions of anger and happiness. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 146(4), 457–463. http://doi.org/10.1037/xge0000279CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Becker, D. V., Kenrick, D. T., Neuberg, S. L., Blackwell, K. C., & Smith, D. M. (2007). The confounded nature of angry men and happy women. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 92(2), 179–190. http://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.92.2.179CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Belgrave, F. Z., & Abrams, J. A., (2016). Reducing disparities and achieving equity in African American women’s health. American Psychologist, 71(8), 723–733. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000081CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bijlstra, G., Kleverwal, D., van Lent, T., & Holland, R. W. (2019). Evaluations versus stereotypes in emotion recognition: A replication and extension of Craig and Lipp’s (2018) study on facial age cues. Cognition and Emotion, 33(2), 386–389. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2018.1526778CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bjornsdottir, R. T., & Rule, N. (2017). The visibility of social class from facial cues. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 113(4), 530–546. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspa0000091CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bjornsdottir, R. T., & Rule, N. O. (2020). Negative emotion and perceived social class. Emotion, 20(6), 1031–1041. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0000613CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Blais, C., Jack, R. E., Scheepers, C., Fiset, D., & Caldara, R. (2008). Culture shapes how we look at faces. PLOS ONE, 3(8), e3022. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0003022CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bodenhausen, G. V., Macrae, C. N., & Garst, J. (1998). Stereotypes in thought and deed: Social-cognitive origins of intergroup discrimination. In Intergroup cognition and intergroup behavior (pp. 311–335). Mahway, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.Google Scholar
Borod, J. C., Yecker, S. A., Brickman, A. M., et al. (2004). Changes in posed facial expression of emotion across the adult life span. Experimental Aging Research, 30(4), 305–331. https://doi.org/10.1080/03610730490484399CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Briton, N. J., & Hall, J. A. (1995). Beliefs about female and male nonverbal communication. Sex Roles, 32(1), 79–90. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01544758CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bruce, V. & Young, A. (1986). Understanding face recognition. British Journal of Psychology, 77, 305–327. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8295.1986.tb02199.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Budiman, A., & Ruiz, N. G. (2021). Key facts about Asian Americans, a diverse and growing population. Pew Research Center. www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2021/04/29/key-facts-about-asian-americans/Google Scholar
Carstensen, L. L., Turan, B., Scheibe, S., et al. (2011). Emotional experience improves with age: Evidence based on over ten years of experience sampling. Psychology and Aging, 26(1), 21–33. https://doi-org.ezaccess.libraries.psu.edu/10.1037/a0021285CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chiao, J. Y., Adams, R. B. Jr., Tse, P., et al. (2008). Distinct neural systems underlying the perception of social dominance from facial cues. Group Processes and Intergroup Relations, 11, 201–214.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chrisler, J. C., Barney, A., & Palatino, B. (2016). Ageism can be hazardous to women’s health: Ageism, sexism, and stereotypes of older women in the healthcare system. Journal of Social Issues, 72(1), 86–104. https://doi.org/10.1111/josi.12157CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Coles, S. M., & Pasek, J. (2020). Intersectional invisibility revisited: How group prototypes lead to the erasure and exclusion of Black women. Translational Issues in Psychological Science, 6(4), 314–324. https://doi.org/10.1037/tps0000256CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cooke, A. N., & Halberstadt, A. G. (2021). Adultification, anger bias, and adults’ different perceptions of Black and White children. Cognition and Emotion, 35(7), 1416–1422. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2021.1950127CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Craig, B. M., & Lee, A. J. (2020). Stereotypes and structure in the interaction between facial emotional expression and sex characteristics. Adaptive Human Behavior and Physiology, 6(2), 212–235. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40750-020-00141-5CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Craig, B. M., & Lipp, O. V. (2018). The influence of multiple social categories on emotion perception. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 75, 27–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2017.11.002CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Craig, B. M., Mallan, K. M., & Lipp, O. V. (2012). The effect of poser race on the happy categorization advantage depends on stimulus type, set size, and presentation duration. Emotion, 12(6), 1303–1314. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0028622CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Crenshaw, K. (1991). Mapping the margins: Intersectionality, identity politics, and violence against women of color. Stanford Law Review, 43(6), 1241–1300.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
de Gelder, B. (2009). Why bodies? Twelve reasons for including bodily expressions in affective neuroscience. Philosophical Transactions: Biological Sciences, 364(1535), 3475–3484. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2009.0190CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
de Gelder, B., Morris, J. S., & Dolan, R. J. (2005). Unconscious fear influences emotional awareness of faces and voices. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA, 102, 18682–18687.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dittrich, W. H., Troscianko, T., Lea, S. E. G., & Morgan, D. (1996). Perception of emotion from dynamic point-light displays represented in dance. Perception, 25(6), 727–738. https://doi.org/10.1068/p250727CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Donders, N. C., Correll, J., & Wittenbrink, B. (2008). Danger stereotypes predict racially biased attentional allocation. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 44(5), 1328–1333. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2008.04.002CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dunbar, R. I. M. (1998). The social brain hypothesis. Evolutionary Anthropology, 6, 178–190.3.0.CO;2-8>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eagly, A. H., & Steffen, V. J. (1984). Gender stereotypes stem from the distribution of women and men into social roles. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 46(4), 735–754. https://doi-org.ezaccess.libraries.psu.edu/10.1037/0022-3514.46.4.735CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eagly, A., Nater, C., Miller, D., Kaufmann, M., & Sczesny, S. (2020). Gender stereotypes have changed: A cross-temporal meta-analysis of U.S. public opinion polls from 1946 to 2018. American Psychologist, 75(3), 301–315. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000494CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ebner, N. C. (2008). Age of face matters: Age-group differences in ratings of young and old faces. Behavior Research Methods, 40(1), 130–136. https://doi.org/10.3758/BRM.40.1.130CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ebner, N. C., & Johnson, M. K. (2009). Young and older emotional faces: Are there age-group differences in expression identification and memory? Emotion (Washington, D.C.), 9(3), 329–339. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0015179CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ekman, P., Friesen, W. V., O’Sullivan, M., et al. (1987). Universals and cultural differences in the judgments of facial expressions of emotion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53(4), 712–717. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.53.4.712CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Elfenbein, H. A., Mandal, M. K., Ambady, N., Harizuka, S., & Kumar, S. (2002). Cross-cultural patterns in emotion recognition: Highlighting design and analytical techniques. Emotion, 2(1), 75–84. https://doi-org/10.1037/1528-3542.2.1.75CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Else-Quest, N. M., & Hyde, J. S. (2016a). Intersectionality in quantitative psychological research: I. Theoretical and epistemological issues. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 40(2), 155–170. https://doi.org/10.1177/0361684316629797CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Else-Quest, N. M., & Hyde, J. S. (2016b). Intersectionality in quantitative psychological research: II. Methods and techniques. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 40(3), 319–336. https://doi.org/10.1177/0361684316647953CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Espinoza, S., & Walston, J. (2005). Frailty in older adults: Insights and interventions. Cleveland Clinic Journal of Medicine, 72(12), 1105–1112. https://doi.org/10.3949/ccjm.72.12.1105CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fausto‐Sterling, A. (2005). The bare bones of sex: Part 1 – Sex and gender. Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society, 30(2), 1491–1527. https://doi.org/10.1086/424932CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fiske, S. T., Cuddy, A. J. C., Glick, P., & Xu, J. (2002). A model of (often mixed) stereotype content: Competence and warmth respectively follow from perceived status and competition. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82(6), 878–902. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.82.6.878CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fiske, S. T., & Neuberg, S. L. (1990). A continuum of impression formation, from category-based to individuating processes: Influences of information and motivation on attention and interpretation. In Zanna, M. P. (ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 23, pp. 1–74). San Diego, CA: Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-2601(08)60317-2Google Scholar
Fölster, M., Hess, U., & Werheid, K. (2014). Facial age affects emotional expression decoding. Frontiers in Psychology, 5, 30. www.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00030CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Freudenberg, M., Adams, R. B. Jr., Kleck, R. E., & Hess, U. (2015). Through a glass darkly: Facial wrinkles affect our processing of emotion in the elderly. Frontiers in Psychology, 6, 1476. www.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01476CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Freudenberg, M., Albohn, D. N., Kleck, R. E., Adams, R. B. Jr., & Hess, U. (2020). Emotional stereotypes on trial: Implicit emotion associations for young and old adults. Emotion, 20(7), 1244–1254. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0000626CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ganel, T. (2015). Smiling makes you look older. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 22(6), 1671–1677. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13423-015-0822-7CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ganel, T., & Goodale, M. A. (2018). The effects of smiling on perceived age defy belief. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 25(2), 612–616. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13423-017-1306-8CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ganel, T., & Goodale, M. A. (2021). The effect of smiling on the perceived age of male and female faces across the lifespan. Scientific Reports, 11(1), 23020–23022. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-02380-2CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ghavami, N., & Peplau, L. A. (2013). An intersectional analysis of gender and ethnic stereotypes: Testing three hypotheses. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 37(1), 113–127. https://doi.org/10.1177/0361684312464203CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gilmore, A., & Bettis, P. (2021). Antiblackness and the adultification of Black children in a U.S. prison nation. Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Education. https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190264093.013.1293. https://oxfordre.com/education/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780190264093.001.0001/acrefore-9780190264093-e-1293Google Scholar
Goff, P. A., Jackson, M. C., Di Leone, B. A. L., Culotta, C. M., & DiTomasso, N. A. (2014). The essence of innocence: Consequences of dehumanizing Black children. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 106(4), 526–545. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0035663CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goff, P. A., Thomas, M. A., & Jackson, M. C. (2008). “Ain’t I a woman?”: Towards an intersectional approach to person perception and group-based harms. Sex Roles, 59(5), 392–403. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-008-9505-4CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goh, J. X., & McCue, J. (2021). Perceived prototypicality of Asian subgroups in the United States and the United Kingdom. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 97, Article 104201. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2021.104201CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gonçalves, A. R., Fernandes, C., Pasion, R., et al. (2018). Effects of age on the identification of emotions in facial expressions: A meta-analysis. PeerJ, 6, e5278. https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.5278CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Grainger, S. A., Vanman, E. J., Matters, G., & Henry, J. D. (2019). The influence of tears on older and younger adults’ perceptions of sadness. Psychology and Aging, 34(5), 665–673. https://doi.org/10.1037/pag0000373CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Grondhuis, S. N., Jimmy, A., Teague, C., & Brunet, N. M. (2021). Having difficulties reading the facial expression of older individuals? Blame it on the facial muscles, not the wrinkles. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 620768. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.620768CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gross, J., Carstensen, L., Pasupathi, M., et al. (1998). Emotion and aging: Experience, expression, and control. Psychology and Aging, 12(4), 590–599. https://doi.org/10.1037/0882-7974.12.4.590CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Halberstadt, A. G., Castro, V. L., Chu, Q., Lozada, F. T., & Sims, C. M. (2018). Preservice teachers’ racialized emotion recognition, anger bias, and hostility attributions. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 54, 125–138. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2018.06.004CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Halberstadt, A. G., Cooke, A. N., Garner, P. W., et al. (2020). Racialized emotion recognition accuracy and anger bias of children’s faces. Emotion, 22(3), 403–417. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0000756CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hass, N. C., Schneider, E. J. S., & Lim, S.-L. (2015). Emotional expressions of old faces are perceived as more positive and less negative than young faces in young adults. Frontiers in Psychology, 6, 1276. www.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01276CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hass, N. C., Weston, T. D., & Lim, S.-L. (2016). Be happy not sad for your youth: The effect of emotional expression on age perception. PLOS ONE, 11(3), e0152093. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0152093CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hasselmo, M. E., Rolls, E. T., & Baylis, G. C. (1989). The role of expression and identity in the face-selective responses of neurons in the temporal visual cortex of the monkey. Behavioural Brain Research, 32(3), 203–218. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0166-4328(89)80054-3CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Haxby, J. V., Hoffman, E. A., & Gobbini., M. I. (2000). The distributed human neural system for face perception. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 4(6), 223–233. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1364-6613(00)01482-0CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hess, U., Adams, R. B. Jr., & Kleck, R. E. (2004). Facial appearance, gender, and emotion expression. Emotion, 4(4), 378–388. https://doi-org/10.1037/1528-3542.4.4.378CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hess, U., Adams, R. B. Jr., & Kleck, R. E. (2005). Who may frown and who should smile? Dominance, affiliation, and the display of happiness and anger. Cognition & Emotion, 19(4), 515–536. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699930441000364CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hess, U., Adams, R. B. Jr., Grammer, K., & Kleck, R. E. (2009). Face gender and emotion expression: Are angry women more like men? Journal of Vision, 9(12), 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1167/9.12.19CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hess, U., Adams, R. B. Jr., Simard, A., Stevenson, M. T., & Kleck, R. E. (2012). Smiling and sad wrinkles: Age-related changes in the face and the perception of emotions and intentions. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 48(6), 1377–1380. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2012.05.018CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hess, U., Blairy, S., & Kleck, R. E. (2000). The influence of facial emotion displays, gender, and ethnicity on judgments of dominance and affiliation. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 24(4), 265–283.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hess, U., Thibault, P., Adams, R. B. Jr., & Kleck, R. E. (2010). The influence of gender, social roles and facial appearance on perceived emotionality. European Journal of Social Psychology, 40, 1310−1317.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hester, N., & Gray, K. (2018). For Black men, being tall increases threat stereotyping and police stops. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 115(11), 2711–2715. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1714454115CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hoffman, E. A., & Haxby, J. V. (2000). Distinct representations of eye gaze and identity in the distributed human neural system for face perception. Nature Neuroscience, 3, 80–84. https://doi.org/10.1038/71152CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hope, D., Bates, T., Penke, L., et al. (2013). Symmetry of the face in old age reflects childhood social status. Economics & Human Biology, 11(2), 236–244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ehb.2011.06.006CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hugenberg, K. (2005). Social categorization and the perception of facial affect: Target race moderates the response latency advantage for happy faces. Emotion, 5(3), 267–276. https://doi.org/10.1037/1528-3542.5.3.267CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hugenberg, K., & Bodenhausen, G. V. (2003). Facing prejudice: Implicit prejudice and the perception of facial threat. Psychological Science, 14(6), 640–643. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.0956-7976.2003.psci_1478.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hugenberg, K., & Bodenhausen, G. V. (2004). Ambiguity in social categorization: The role of prejudice and facial affect in race categorization. Psychological Science, 15(5), 342–345. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0956-7976.2004.00680.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hummert, M. L., Garstka, T. A., & Shaner, J. L. (1997). Stereotyping of older adults: The role of target facial cues and perceiver characteristics. Psychology and Aging, 12(1), 107–114. https://doi.org/10.1037/0882-7974.12.1.107CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hummert, M. L., Garstka, T. A., Shaner, J. L., & Strahm, S. (1994). Stereotypes of the elderly held by young, middle-aged, and elderly adults. Journal of Gerontology, 49(5), P240–P249. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronj/49.5.P240CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Im, H. Y., Chong, S. C., Sun, J., et al. (2017). Cross-cultural and hemispheric laterality effects on the ensemble coding of emotion in facial crowds. Culture and Brain, 5(2), 125–152. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40167-017-0054-yCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jack, R. E., Garrod, O. G. B., Yu, H., Caldara, R., & Schyns, P. G. (2012). Facial expressions of emotion are not culturally universal. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 109(19), 7241–7244. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1200155109CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jefferies, K. (2020). The Strong Black woman: Insights and implications for nursing. Journal of the American Psychiatric Nurses Association, 28(4), 332–338. https://doi.org/10.1177/1078390320983900CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Johnson, K. L., Freeman, J. B., & Pauker, K. (2012). Race is gendered: How covarying phenotypes and stereotypes bias sex categorization. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 102(1), 116–131. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0025335CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Johnson, K. L., Iida, M., & Tassinary, L. G. (2012). Person (mis)perception: Functionally biased sex categorization of bodies. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 279, 4982–4989. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2012.2060CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Johnson, K. L., McKay, L. S., & Pollick, F. E. (2011). He throws like a girl (but only when he’s sad): Emotion affects sex-decoding of biological motion displays. Cognition, 119(2), 265–280. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2011.01.016CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jones, A. L., Batres, C., Porcheron, A., et al. (2018). Positive facial affect looks healthy. Visual Cognition, 26(1), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1080/13506285.2017.1369202CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jones, B., DeBruine, L., Little, A., Conway, C., & Feinberg, D. (2006). Integrating gaze direction and expression in preferences for attractive faces. Psychological Science, 17(7), 588–591. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2006.01749.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jura, M., & Kozak, Leslie. P. (2016). Obesity and related consequences to ageing. Age, 38(1), 23. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11357-016-9884-3CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kang, S. K., & Bodenhausen, G. V. (2015). multiple identities in social perception and interaction: Challenges and opportunities. Annual Review of Psychology, 66(1), 547–574. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-010814-015025CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kang, S. K., & Chasteen, A. L. (2009). Beyond the double-jeopardy hypothesis: Assessing emotion on the faces of multiply-categorizable targets of prejudice. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 45(6), 1281–1285. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2009.07.002CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kang, S. K., Chasteen, A. L., Cadieux, J., Cary, L. A., & Syeda, M. (2014). Comparing young and older adults’ perceptions of conflicting stereotypes and multiply-categorizable individuals. Psychology and Aging, 29(3), 469–481. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0037551CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kite, M. E., & Johnson, B. T. (1988). Attitudes toward older and younger adults: A meta-analysis. Psychology and Aging, 3(3), 233–244. https://doi.org/10.1037/0882-7974.3.3.233CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Knutson, B. (1996). Facial expressions of emotion influence interpersonal trait inferences. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 20(3), 165–182. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02291854CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kozlowski, L. T., & Cutting, J. E. (1977). Recognizing the sex of a walker from a dynamic point-light display. Perception & Psychophysics, 21(6), 575–580. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03198740CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kwate, N. O. A., & Threadcraft, S. (2015). Perceiving the Black female body: Race and gender in police constructions of body weight. Race and Social Problems, 7(3), 213–226. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12552-015-9152-7CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
LaFrance, M., Hecht, M. A., and Paluck, E. L. (2003). The contingent smile: a meta-analysis of sex differences in smiling. Psychological Bulletin, 129, 303–334. https://doi:10.1037/0033-2909.129.2.305CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Le Gal, P. M., & Bruce, V. (2002). Evaluating the independence of sex and expression in judgments of faces. Perception and Psychophysics, 64, 230–243. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03195789CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lee, S. J., & Hong, J. J. (2020). Model minorities and perpetual foreigner: Stereotypes of Asian Americans. In Nadler, J. T. & Voyles, E. C. (eds.), Stereotypes: The incidence and impacts of bias (pp. 165–174). Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Leung, K. (2007). Asian social psychology: Achievements, threats, and opportunities. Asian Journal of Social Psychology, 10(1), 8–15. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-839X.2006.00205.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Levy, B. (2009). Stereotype embodiment: A psychosocial approach to aging. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 18(6), 332–336. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8721.2009.01662.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lin, M. H., Kwan, V. S. Y., Cheung, A., & Fiske, S. T. (2005). Stereotype content model explains prejudice for an envied outgroup: Scale of anti-Asian American stereotypes. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 31(1), 34–47. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167204271320CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ma, D. S., Correll, J., & Wittenbrink, B. (2018). The effects of category and physical features on stereotyping and evaluation. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 79, 42–50. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2018.06.008CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Malatesta, C. Z., Fiore, M. J., & Messina, J. J. (1987). Affect, personality, and facial expressive characteristics of older people. Psychology and Aging, 2(1), 64–69. https://doi.org/10.1037/0882-7974.2.1.64CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Marsh, A. A., Adams, R. B. Jr., & Kleck, R. E. (2005). Why do fear and anger look the way they do? Form and social function in facial expressions. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 31(1), 73–86. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167204271306CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Martinez, L., Falvello, V. B., Aviezer, H., & Todorov, A. (2016). Contributions of facial expressions and body language to the rapid perception of dynamic emotions. Cognition and Emotion, 30(5), 939–952. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2015.1035229CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Meeren, H. J. M., van Heijnsbergen, C. C. R. J., & de Gelder, B. (2005). Rapid perceptual integration of facial expression and emotional body language. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 102(45), 16518–16523. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0507650102CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Milders, M., Hietanen, J. K., Leppänen, J. M., & Braun, M. (2011). Detection of emotional faces is modulated by the direction of eye gaze. Emotion, 11(6), 1456–1461. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0022901CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mok, T. A. (1998). Getting the message: Media images and stereotypes and their effect on Asian Americans. Cultural Diversity and Mental Health, 4(3), 185–202. https://doi.org/10.1037/1099-9809.4.3.185CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Montepare, J. M., & Dobish, H. (2014). Younger and older adults’ beliefs about the experience and expression of emotions across the life span. The Journals of Gerontology: Series B, 69(6), 892–896. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbt073CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Moon, G. H. (2022). Infantilization of the Asian American elderly and the nature of the media. Asian American Research Journal, 2. https://doi.org/10.5070/RJ42057357. https://escholarship.org/uc/item/7n37n98gCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nadal, K. (2019). The Brown Asian American movement: Advocating for South Asian, Southeast Asian, and Filipino American communities. Asian American Policy Review, 29, 2–11.Google Scholar
Nakamura, K., & Watanabe, K. (2019). Data-driven mathematical model of East-Asian facial attractiveness: The relative contributions of shape and reflectance to attractiveness judgements. Royal Society Open Science, 6(5), 182–189. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsos.182189CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Öhman, A., Juth, P., & Lundqvist, D. (2010). Finding the face in a crowd: Relationships between distractor redundancy, target emotion, and target gender. Cognition & Emotion, 24(7), 1216–1228. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699930903166882CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Palumbo, R., Adams, R. B. Jr., Hess, U., Kleck, R. E., & Zebrowitz, L. (2017). Age and gender differences in facial attractiveness, but not emotion resemblance, contribute to age and gender stereotypes. Frontiers in Psychology, 8, 1704. www.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01704CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Phelan, S. M., Burgess, D. J., Yeazel, M. W., et al. (2015). Impact of weight bias and stigma on quality of care and outcomes for patients with obesity. Obesity Reviews, 16(4), 319–326. https://doi.org/10.1111/obr.12266CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pilgrim, D. (2000, November). The Brute Caricature: Jim Crow Museum. Jim Crow Museum. www.ferris.edu/HTMLS/news/jimcrow/brute/homepage.htmGoogle Scholar
Plant, E. A., Hyde, J. S., Keltner, D., & Devine, P. G. (2000). The gender stereotyping of emotions. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 24(1), 81–92. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.2000.tb01024.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pollick, F. E., Kay, J. W., Heim, K., & Stringer, R. (2005). Gender recognition from point-light walkers. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 31(6), 1247–1265. https://doi.org/10.1037/0096-1523.31.6.1247Google ScholarPubMed
Pollux, P. M. J., Hermens, F., & Willmott, A. P. (2016). Age-congruency and contact effects in body expression recognition from point-light displays (PLD). PeerJ, 4, e2796. https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.2796CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Purdie-Vaughns, V., & Eibach, R. P. (2008). Intersectional invisibility: The distinctive advantages and disadvantages of multiple subordinate-group identities. Sex Roles, 59(5), 377–391. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-008-9424-4CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rad, M. S., Martingano, A. J., & Ginges, J. (2018). Toward a psychology of Homo sapiens: Making psychological science more representative of the human population. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 115(45), 11401–11405. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1721165115CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Re, D. E., & Rule, N. O. (2016). Appearance and physiognomy. In APA handbook of nonverbal communication (pp. 221–256). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/14669-009CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ready, R. E., Vaidya, J. G., Watson, D., et al. (2011). Age-group differences in facets of positive and negative affect. Aging & Mental Health, 15(6), 784–795. https://doi.org/10.1080/13607863.2011.562184CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Riediger, M., Voelkle, M. C., Ebner, N. C., & Lindenberger, U. (2011). Beyond “happy, angry, or sad?” Age-of-poser and age-of-rater effects on multi-dimensional emotion perception. Cognition & Emotion, 25(6), 968–982. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2010.540812CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Robinson, M. D., & Johnson, J. T. (1997). Is it emotion or is it stress? Gender stereotypes and the perception of subjective experience. Sex Roles, 36(3–4), 235–258. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02766270CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rosette, A. S., Koval, C. Z., Ma, A., & Livingston, R. (2016). Race matters for women leaders: Intersectional effects on agentic deficiencies and penalties. The Leadership Quarterly, 27(3), 429–445. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2016.01.008CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rossi, A. M., Eviatar, J., Green, J. B., et al. (2017). Signs of facial aging in men in a diverse, multinational study: Timing and preventive behaviors. Dermatologic Surgery, 43, S210–S220. https://doi.org/10.1097/DSS.0000000000001293CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ruffman, T., Henry, J. D., Livingstone, V., & Phillips, L. H. (2008). A meta-analytic review of emotion recognition and aging: Implications for neuropsychological models of aging. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 32(4), 863–881. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2008.01.001CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Santorelli, G. D., Ready, R. E., & Mather, M. A. (2018). Perceptions of emotion and age among younger, midlife, and older adults. Aging & Mental Health, 22(3), 421–429. https://doi.org/10.1080/13607863.2016.1268092CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schudson, Z., Beischel, W., & Anders, S. (2019). Individual variation in Gender/Sex category definitions. Psychology of Sexual Orientation and Gender Diversity, 6(4), 448–460. https://doi.org/10.1037/sgd0000346CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shields, S. A. (2007). Passionate men, emotional women: Psychology constructs gender difference in the late 19th century. History of Psychology, 10(2), 92–110. https://doi.org/10.1037/1093-4510.10.2.92CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shields, S. A. (2008). Gender: An intersectionality perspective. Sex Roles, 59(5), 301–311. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-008-9501-8CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smith, J., LaFrance, M., & Dovidio, J. (2015). Categorising intersectional targets: An “either/and” approach to race-and gender-emotion congruity. Cognition & Emotion, 31(1), 83–97. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2015.1081875CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sobal, J., & Stunkard, A. J. (1989). Socioeconomic status and obesity: A review of the literature. Psychological Bulletin, 105(2), 260–275. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.105.2.260CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tanaka, J. W., Kiefer, M., & Bukach, C. M. (2004). A holistic account of the own-race effect in face recognition: Evidence from a cross-cultural study. Cognition, 93(1), B1–B9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2003.09.011CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tranel, D., & Damasio, A. R. (1988). Non-conscious face recognition in patients with face agnosia. Behavioural Brain Research, 30(3), 235–249. https://doi.org /10.1016/0166-4328(88)90166-0Google Scholar
Trawalter, S., & Hoffman, K. M. (2015). Got pain? Racial bias in perceptions of pain. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 9(3), 146–157. https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12161CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Van den Stock, J., Righart, R., & de Gelder, B. (2007). Body expressions influence recognition of emotions in the face and voice. Emotion, 7(3), 487–494. https://doi.org/10.1037/1528-3542.7.3.487CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Voelkle, M. C., Ebner, N. C., Lindenberger, U., & Riediger, M. (2012). Let me guess how old you are: Effects of age, gender, and facial expression on perceptions of age. Psychology and Aging, 27(2), 265–277. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0025065Google ScholarPubMed
Walker, P. M., & Hewstone, M. (2006). A perceptual discrimination investigation of the own-race effect and intergroup experience. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 20(4), 461–475. https://doi.org/10.1002/acp.1191Google Scholar
Walley-Jean, C. (2009). Debunking the myth of the “angry Black woman”: An exploration of anger in young African American women. Black Women, Gender + Families, 3(2), 68–86.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wang, Z., He, X., & Liu, F. (2015). Examining the effect of smile intensity on age perceptions. Psychological Reports, 117(1), 188–205. https://doi.org/10.2466/07.PR0.117c10z7CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Watson, D., Clark, L. A., & Carey, G. (1988). Positive and negative affectivity and their relation to anxiety and depressive disorders. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 97(3), 346–353. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-843X.97.3.346Google ScholarPubMed
Weisbuch, M., & Adams, R. B. Jr. (2012). The functional forecast model of emotional expression processing. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 6, 499–514.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Welch, K. (2007). Black criminal stereotypes and racial profiling. Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice, 23(3), 276–288. https://doi.org/10.1177/1043986207306870CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wilson, J. P., Hugenberg, K., & Rule, N. O. (2017). Racial bias in judgments of physical size and formidability: From size to threat. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 113(1), 59–80. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspi0000092CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Xie, S. Y., Flake, J. K., Stolier, R. M., Freeman, J. B., & Hehman, E. (2021). Facial impressions are predicted by the structure of group stereotypes. Psychological Science, 32(12), 1979–1993. https://doi.org/10.1177/09567976211024259CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Yankouskaya, A., Humphreys, G. W., & Rotshtein, P. (2014). Differential interactions between identity and emotional expression in own and other-race faces: Effects of familiarity revealed through redundancy gains. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 40(4), 1025–1038. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0036259Google ScholarPubMed
Yoo, H. C., Gabriel, A. K., & Okazaki, S. (2021). Advancing research within Asian American psychology using Asian critical race theory and an Asian Americanist perspective. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 62(4), 563–590. https://doi.org/10.1177/00221678211062721CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yoshimura, N., Morimoto, K., Murai, M., et al. (2021). Age of smile: A cross-cultural replication report of Ganel and Goodale (2018). Journal of Cultural Cognitive Science, 5(1), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41809-020-00072-3CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zebrowitz, L. A., Kikuchi, M., & Fellous, J.-M. (2007). Are effects of emotion expression on trait impressions mediated by babyfaceness? Evidence from connectionist modeling. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 33(5), 648–662. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167206297399CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zebrowitz, L. A., Kikuchi, M., & Fellous, J.-M. (2010). Facial resemblance to emotions: Group differences, impression effects, and race stereotypes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 98(2), 175–189. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0017990CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure [email protected] is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×