Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-p9bg8 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-26T02:47:46.590Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Part I - Anxieties of Power, Influence, and Representation

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  25 May 2019

Edited by
Frances E. Lee  and
Nolan McCarty
Frances E. Lee
Affiliation:
University of Maryland, College Park
Nolan McCarty
Affiliation:
Princeton University, New Jersey
Get access

Summary

How politically powerful is business in American politics? Does the political power of business distort the quality of democratic representation? This chapter reviews the literature on these vital questions, discussing selected studies in political science, sociology, history, and other fields. It finds that assessments of business influence in American politics have varied considerably over time, but it also observes there has been a broad turn in recent scholarship toward the notion that business is “more equal” than other groups in the American political system. A small but growing number of studies—especially studies focusing on politics in our time—has begun to provide credible evidence of business influence. We have also seen the introduction of some exciting new ideas about the ways that business influence, economic inequality, and political representation may be theoretically connected. But definitive conclusions remain elusive. We do not really know whether business is disproportionately powerful and how business influence affects the performance of American democracy. The chapter concludes with some suggestions about the kind of studies that are needed going forward.

Keywords

Businesslobbyingrepresentationpublic policyinequalityinterest groupslobbyinginequalitymoney in politicsrepresentationCampaign FinanceRepresentationSenateUS CongressLegislative BehaviorProtestElectionsRaceSocial MovementsVoter TurnoutMinorityPolitical Partypartiesparty-buildinghollownessmobilizationDemocratsRepublicans
Type
Chapter
Information
Can America Govern Itself? , pp. 13 - 152
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2019

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

References

Akey, Pat. 2015. “Valuing Changes in Political Networks: Evidence from Campaign Contributions to Close Congressional Elections.” Review of Financial Studies 28: 3188–3223.Google Scholar
Andrews, Wilson, and Parlapiano, Alicia. 2017. “What’s in the Final Republican Tax Bill.” New York Times, December 18. Retrieved from www.nytimes.com/interactive/2017/12/15/us/politics/final-republican-tax-bill-cuts.html (last accessed January 2, 2019).Google Scholar
Ansolabehere, Stephen, de Figueiredo, John M., and Snyder, James M. Jr. 2003. “Why Is There So Little Money in U.S. Politics.” The Journal of Economic Perspectives 17 (Winter): 103–130.Google Scholar
Baumgartner, Frank, Berry, Jeffrey M., Hojnacki, Marie, Kimball, David C., and Leech, Beth L. 2009. Lobbying and Policy Change. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Bertand, Marriane, Bombardini, Matilde, and Trebbi, Francesco. 2014. “Is It Whom You Know or What You Know? An Empirical Assessment.” American Economic Review 104: 3885–3920.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blackwell, Rob. 2018. “Top White House Official to Join Big-Bank Group.” American Banker, June 4. Retrieved from www.americanbanker.com/news/top-white-house-official-to-join-big-bank-group (last accessed January 2, 2019).Google Scholar
Blanes I. Vidal, Jordi, Draca, Mirko, and Fons-Rosen, Christian. 2012. “Revolving Door Lobbyists.” American Economic Review 102: 3731–3748.Google Scholar
Bauer, Raymond A., de Sola Pool, Ithiel, and Dexter, Lewis A.. 1963. American Business and Public Policy. New York: Atherton Press.Google Scholar
Bernstein, Marver H. 1955. Regulating Business by Independent Commission. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Block, Fred. 1977. “The Ruling Class Does Not Rule: Notes on the Marxist Theory of the State.” Socialist Revolution 33 (May–June): 6–28.Google Scholar
Brody, Ben. 2018. “Business Groups Spent Big on Lobbying during the Tax Overhaul.” Bloomberg, January 23. Retrieved from www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2018-01-23/tax-bill-prompts-business-to-pay-heavily-for-lobbying-campaigns (last January 2, 2019).Google Scholar
Broockman, David A. 2012. “The ‘Problem of Preferences’: Medicare and Business Support for the Welfare State.” Studies in American Political Development 26 (October 12): 83–106.Google Scholar
Carpenter, Daniel. 2010. Reputation and Power. Princeton: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Carpenter, Daniel, and Moss, David A., eds. 2014. Preventing Regulatory Capture: Special Interest Influence and How to Limit It. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Chapin, Christy Ford. 2017. Ensuring America’s Health: The Public Creation of the Corporate Health Care System. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Chen, Anthony S. 2012. “Virtue, Necessity, and Irony in the Politics of Civil Rights: Organized Business and Fair Employment Practices in Postwar Cleveland.” What’s Good for Business, ed. Phillips-Fein, Kimberly and Zelizer, Julian. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Cook, Nancy. 2017. “White House Advisor Clashes with Mnunchin over Tax Plan.” Politico, July 27. Retrieved from www.politico.com/story/2017/07/27/the-trump-administration-cant-agree-on-how-to-do-tax-reform-either-241000 (last accessed January 2, 2019).Google Scholar
Dahl, Robert A. 1961. Who Governs? City. New Haven: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Dahl, Robert A., and Lindblom, Charles 1976. Politics, Economics, and Welfare. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction.Google Scholar
de Figueiredo, John M., and Tiller, Emerson H.. 2001. “The Structure and Conduct of Corporate Lobbying: How Firms Lobby the Federal Communications Commission,” Journal of Economics and Management Strategy 10 (2001): 91–112.Google Scholar
de Figueiredo, John M., and Richter, Brian Kelleher. 2014. “Advancing the Empirical Research on Lobbying.” Annual Review of Political Science 2014: 163–185.Google Scholar
Dillon, Lindsey, Sellers, Christopher, Underhill, Vivian, Shapiro, Nicholas, Ohayon, Jennifer Liss, Sullivan, Marianne, Brown, Phil, Harrison, Jill, and Wylie, Sara. 2018. “The Environmental Protection Agency in the Early Trump Administration: Prelude to Regulatory Capture.” American Journal of Public Health 108: S89–S94.Google Scholar
Domhoff, G. William. 1967. Who Rules America? Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.Google Scholar
Domhoff, G. William. 1978. The Powers That Be. New York: Random House.Google Scholar
Drutman, Lee. 2015. The Business of America Is Lobbying. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Dye, Thomas R. 1978. “Oligarchic Tendencies in National Policy-Making: The Role of Private Policy-Planning Organizations.” Journal of Politics 40 (May).Google Scholar
Ferguson, Thomas. 1983. “Party Realignment and American Industrial Structure: The Investment Theory of Political Parties in Historical Perspective.” Research in Political Economy 6 (1983): 1–82.Google Scholar
Ferguson, Thomas. 1984. “From Normalcy to New Deal: Industrial Structure, Party Competition, and American Public Policy in the Great Depression,” International Organization 38 (Winter): 41–94.Google Scholar
Ferguson, Thomas. 1995. Golden Rule. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Gilens, Martin, and Page, Benjamin I.. 2014. “Testing Theories of American Politics: Elites, Interest Groups, and Average Citizens.” Perspective on Politics 12 (September): 564–581.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goldman, Eitan, Rochell, Jorg, and So, Jongil. 2009. “Do Politically Connected Boards Affect Firm Value?” Review of Financial Studies 22 (June): 2331–2360.Google Scholar
Groll, Thomas, and Ellis, Christopher J.. 2014. “A Simple Model of the Commercial Lobbying Industry.” European Economic Review 70: 299–316.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Groll, Thomas, and Ellis, Christopher J.. 2016. “Repeated Lobbying by Commercial Lobbyists and Special Interests.” CESinfo Working Paper #5809.Google Scholar
Grossman, Gene M., and Helpman, Elhanan. 1994. “Protection for Sale.” American Economic Review 84 (1994): 833–850.Google Scholar
Hacker, Jacob S., and Pierson, Paul. 2010. Winner-Take-All Politics. New York: Simon and Schuster.Google Scholar
Hall, Richard L. 1996. Participation in Congress. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Hall, Richard L., and Wayman, Frank W.. 1990. “Buying Time: Moneyed Interests and the Mobilization of Bias in Congressional Committees.” American Political Science Review 84 (September): 797–820, esp. 802.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hall, Richard L., and Deardorff, Alan V.. 2006. “Lobbying as Legislative Subsidy.” American Political Science Review 100 (February): 69–84.Google Scholar
Hamilton, Alexander, Madison, James, and Jay, John. 2008. “The Federalist, 10 (Madison).” In The Federalist Papers, edited by Goldman, Lawrence. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Hart, David M. 2004. “‘Business’ Is Not an Interest Group: On the Study of Companies in American National Politics.” Annual Review of Political Science 7: 47–69.Google Scholar
Hartz, Louis. 1955. The Liberal Tradition in America. New York: Harcourt, Brace.Google Scholar
Hertel-Fernandez, Alexander. 2014. “Who Passes Model Bills? Policy Capacity and Corporate Influence in U.S. State Politics.” Perspectives on Politics 12 (September): 582–602.Google Scholar
Hertel-Fernandez, Alexander. 2016. “Explaining Durable Business Coalitions in U.S. Politics: Conservatives and Corporate Interests Across America’s Statehouses.” Studies in American Political Development 30 (April): 1–18.Google Scholar
Hertel-Fernandez, Alexander, and Skocpol, Theda. 2015. “Asymmetric Interest Group Mobilization and Party Coalitions in U.S. Tax Politics.” Studies in American Political Development 29 (October): 235–249.Google Scholar
Hofstadter, Richard. 1955. The Age of Reform. New York: Vintage Books.Google Scholar
Hojnacki, Marie, Marchetti, Kathleen M., Baumgartner, Frank R., Berry, Jeffrey M., Kimball, David C., and Leech, Beth L.. 2015. “Assessing Business Advantage in Washington Lobbying.” Interest Groups and Advocacy 4 (September): 205–224.Google Scholar
Huntington, Samuel P. 1952. “The Marasmus of the ICC: The Commission, the Railroads, and the Public Interest.” Yale Law Journal 61 (April): 467–509.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Igan, Deniz, and Mishra, Prachi. 2014. “Wall Street, Capitol Hill, and K Street: Political Influence and Financial Regulation.” Journal of Law and Economics 57 (November): 1063–1084.Google Scholar
Igan, Deniz, Mishra, Prachi, and Tressel, Thierry. 2012. “A Fistful of Dollars: Lobbying and the Financial Crisis.” NBER Macroeconomics Annual 26(1): 195–230.Google Scholar
Jagoda, Naomi. 2018. “Ex-MccConnell Policy Aide Joining Lobby Firm.” Politico, May 21. Retrieved from https://thehill.com/business-a-lobbying/388607-ex-mcconnell-policy-aide-joining-lobby-firm (last accessed January 2, 2019).Google Scholar
Jayachandran, Seema. 2006. “The Jeffords Effect.” Journal of Law and Economics 49 (October): 397–425.Google Scholar
Key, V. O. Jr. 1948. Parties, Politics, and Pressure Groups, 2nd edition. New York: Crowell.Google Scholar
Kolko, Gabriel. 1963. The Triumph of Conservatism. New York: Free Press.Google Scholar
Kroszner, Randall S., and Stratmann, Thomas. 1998. “Interest-Group Competition and the Organization of Congress: Theory and Evidence from Financial Services’ Political Action Committees.” American Economic Review 88 (December): 1163–1187.Google Scholar
Kroszner, Randall S., and Stratmann, Thomas. 2000. “Congressional Committee as Reputation-Building Mechanisms.” Business and Politics 2: 35–52.Google Scholar
Kroszner, Randall S., and Stratmann, Thomas. 2005. “Corporate Campaign Contributions, Repeat Giving, and the Rewards to Legislator Reputation.” Journal of Law and Economics 48 (April): 41–71.Google Scholar
Lane, Ben. 2018. “Big Bank Influence Grows: The Clearing House Association Merging with Financial Services Roundtable.” Housingwire, March 13.Google Scholar
Levine, Marianne, and Meyer, Theodoric. 2018. “It’s a Great Time To Be a Tax Specialist.” Politico, May 22.Google Scholar
Lindblom, Charles. 1977. Politics and Markets. New York: Basic Books.Google Scholar
Lorenzo, Aaron. 2018. “GOP Staffers Who Wrote the Tax Bill Cash in with Lobbying Gigs.” Politico, June 4.Google Scholar
McCarty, Nolan, and Rothenberg, Lawrence S.. 1996. “Commitment and the Campaign Contribution Contract.” American Journal of Political Science 40 (August): 872–904.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McCarty, Nolan, Poole, Keith T., and Rosenthal, Howard. 2013. Political Bubbles: Financial Crises and the Failure of American Democracy. Princeton: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
McConnell, Grant. 1966. Private Power and American Democracy. New York: Knopf, 1966.Google Scholar
Martin, Cathie J. 1991. Shifting the Burden. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Mian, Atif, Sufi, Amir, and Trebbi, Francesco. 2010. “The Political Economy of the U.S. Mortgage Default Crisis.” American Economic Review 100 (December): 1967–1998.Google Scholar
Mian, Atif, Sufi, Amir, and Trebbi, Francesco, 2013. “The Political Economy of the Subprime Mortgage Expansion.” Quarterly Journal of Political Science 8: 373–408.Google Scholar
Mills, C. Wright. 1956. The Power Elite. New York: Oxford.Google Scholar
Milyo, Jeff, Primo, David, and Groseclose, Timothy. 2000. “Corporate PAC Campaign Contributions in Perspective.” Business and Politics 2: 75–88, esp. 82.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mintz, Beth, and Schwartz, Michael. 1985. The Power Structure of American Business. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Mizruchi, Mark. 2013. The Fracturing of the American Corporate Elite. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Novak, William. 2014. “A Revisionist History of Regulatory Capture.” In Preventing Regulatory Capture, ed. Carpenter, Daniel and Moss, David. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Nunez, Stephen, and Rosenthal, Howard. 2004. “Bankruptcy ‘Reform’ in Congress: Creditors, Committees, Ideology, and Floor Voting in the Legislative Process.” Journal of Law, Economics, and Organization 20 (October): 527–557.Google Scholar
Peltzman, Samuel. 1984. “Constituent Interest and Congressional Voting.” Journal of Law and Economics 27 (April): 181–210.Google Scholar
Peltzman, Samuel. 1985. “An Economic Interpretation of the History of Congressional Voting in the Twentieth Century.” American Economic Review 75 (September): 656–675.Google Scholar
Phillips-Fein, Kim. 2010. Invisible Hands. New York: Norton.Google Scholar
Phillips-Fein, Kim, and Zelizer, Julian. 2012. “Introduction.” In What’s Good for Business: Business and American Politics since World War II, ed. by Phillips-Fein, Kim and Zelizer, Julian. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Piketty, Thomas. 2014. Capital in the Twenty-First Century. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Richter, Brian Kelleher, Samphantharak, Krislert, and Timmons, Jeffrey F.. 2009. “Lobbying and Taxes.” American Journal of Political Science 53 (October): 893–909.Google Scholar
Rozen, Miriam. 2018. “Akin Gump Boosts Partner Profits as Deals, Lobbying Spur Gains.” The American Lawyer, February 5. Retrieved from www.law.com/americanlawyer/2018/02/05/akin-gump-boosts-partner-profits-as-deals-lobbying-spur-gains/?slreturn=20181123192330 (last accessed January 2, 2019).Google Scholar
Schlesinger, Arthur M. Jr. 1957. The Age of Roosevelt, Volume 1: The Crisis of the Old Order, 1919–1933. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.Google Scholar
Schlesinger, Arthur M. Jr. 1958. The Age of Roosevelt, Volume 2: The Coming of the New Deal. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.Google Scholar
Schlesinger, Arthur M. Jr. 1960. The Age of Roosevelt, Volume 3: The Politics of Upheaval, 1935–1936. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.Google Scholar
Schlozman, Kay, and Tierney, John. 1986. Organized Interests in American Democracy New York: Harper and Row.Google Scholar
Schlozman, Kay, Verba, Sidney, and Brady, Henry E.. 2012. The Unheavenly Chorus. Princeton: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Sklar, Martin. 1960. “Woodrow Wilson and the Political Economy of Modern United States Liberalism.” Studies on the Left 1 (Fall).Google Scholar
Sklar, Martin J. 1988. The Corporate Reconstruction of American Capitalism, 1890–1916. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Smith, Mark A. 2000. American Business and Political Power. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Smith, Mark A. 2010. “The Mobilization and Influence of Business Interests.” In The Oxford Handbook of American Political Parties and Interest Groups, ed. by Maisel, L. Sandy, Berry, Jeffrey M., and Edwards, George C. III. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Snyder, James M. Jr. 1990. “Campaign Contributions as Investments: The U.S. House of Representatives, 1980–1986.” Journal of Political Economy 98 (December): 1195–1227.Google Scholar
Snyder, James M. Jr. 1992. “Long-Term Investing in Politicians: Or, Give Early, Often.” Journal of Law and Economics 35: 15–43.Google Scholar
Stigler, George J. 1971. “The Theory of Economic Regulation,” Bell Journal of Economics and Management Science 2(1): 3–21.Google Scholar
Stratmann, Thomas. 2002. “Can Special Interests Buy Congressional Votes? Evidence from Financial Services Legislation,” Journal of Law and Economics 45 (October): 347.Google Scholar
Stratmann, Thomas. 2005. “Some Talk: Money in Politics. A (Partial) Review of the Literature.” Public Choice 124 (July): 135–156.Google Scholar
Swenson, Peter A. 2018. “Misrepresented Interests: Business, Medicare, and the Making of the American Health Care System.” Studies in American Political Development 32 (April): 1–23.Google Scholar
Tripathi, Micky, Ansolabehere, Stephen, and Snyder, James J. Jr. 2002. “Are PAC Contributions and Lobbing Linked? New Evidence from the 1995 Lobby Disclosure Act.” Business and Politics 4: 131–155.Google Scholar
Truman, David B. 1955. The Governmental Process, New York: Knopf.Google Scholar
Useem, Michael. 1984. The Inner Circle. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Van Houweling, Robert Parks. 2007. “An Evolving End Game: Partisan Collusion in Conference Committees, 1953–2003.” In Party, Process, and Change in Congress, Volume 2, ed. by Brady, David W. and McCubbins, Mathew. Palo Alto: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Vogel, David. 1989. Fluctuating Fortunes. New York: Basic Books, 1989.Google Scholar
Walker, Edward T. 2014. Grassroots for Hire. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Waterhouse, Benjamin C. 2013. Lobbying America: The Politics of Business from Nixon to NAFTA. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Weinstein, James. 1968. The Corporate Ideal in the Liberal State. Boston: Beacon.Google Scholar
White, Ben, and Cook, Nancy. 2018. “Shahira Knight Leaving White House for Clearing House Banking Group.” Politico, June 4. Retrieved from www.politico.com/story/2018/06/04/shahira-knight-white-house-622815 (last accessed January 2, 2019).Google Scholar
Yackee, Jason Webb, and Yackee, Susan Webb. 2006. “A Bias Toward Business? Assessing Interest Group Influence on the U.S. Bureaucracy.” Journal of Politics 68 (February): 128–139.Google Scholar

References

Arnold, R. Douglas. 1990. The Logic of Congressional Action. New Haven: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Bartels, Larry M. 2010. Unequal Democracy: The Political Economy of the New Gilded Age. Princeton: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Baumgartner, Frank R., Berry, Jeffrey M., Hojnacki, Marie, Kimball, David C., and Leech, Beth L.. 2009. Lobbying and Policy Change: Who Wins, Who Loses, and Why. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Baumgartner, Frank R., and Jones, Bryan. 2015. The Politics of Information. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Baumgartner, Frank R., Lowery, David, and Gray, Virginia. 2009. “Federal Policy Activity and the Mobilization of State Lobbying Organizations.” Political Research Quarterly 62(3): 552–567.Google Scholar
Baumgartner, Frank R., and Leech, Beth L.. 1998. Basic Interests: The Importance of Groups in Politics and Political Science. Princeton: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Baumgartner, Frank R., and Leech, Beth L.. 2001. “Issue Niches and Policy Bandwagons: Patterns of Interest Group Involvement in National Politics.” Journal of Politics 63(4): 1191–1213.Google Scholar
Baumgartner, Frank R., Larsen-Price, H.A., Leech, B.L., and Rutledge, P. 2011. “Congressional and Presidential Effects on the Demand for Lobbying.” Political Research Quarterly 64(1): 3–16.Google Scholar
Berry, Jeffrey. 1989. The Interest Group Society. Glenview, IL: Scott, Foresman.Google Scholar
Dahl, Robert A. 1956. A Preface to Democratic Theory. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Drutman, Lee. 2015. The Business of America Is Lobbying. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Esterling, Kevin. 2004. “Buying Expertise: Campaign Contributions and Attention to Policy Analysis in Congressional Committees,” American Political Science Review 101(1): 93–109.Google Scholar
Evans, C. Lawrence. 2002. “How Senators Decide: An Exploration.” In Oppenheimer, Bruce I. (ed.), U.S. Senate Exceptionalism. Columbus: The Ohio State University Press.Google Scholar
Galbraith, John Kenneth. 1952. American Capitalism: The Concept of Countervailing Power. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.Google Scholar
Gilens, Martin. 2012. Affluence & Influence: Economic Inequality and Political Power in America. Princeton: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Gilens, Martin, and Page, Benjamin I.. 2014. “Testing Theories of American Politics: Elites, Interest Groups, and Average Citizens.” Perspectives on Politics 12(3): 564–581.Google Scholar
Gray, Virginia, and Lowery, David. 1996. The Population Ecology of Interest Representation: Lobbying Communities in the American States. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University of Michigan Press.Google Scholar
Grossmann, Matt. 2012. The Not-So-Special Interests: Interest Groups, Public Representation, and American Governance. Stanford: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Grossmann, Matt. 2014. Artists of the Possible: Governing Networks in American Policy Change Since 1945. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Grossmann, Matt. 2005. “The Dynamics of a Disturbance: New and Established Interests in Technology Policy Debates.” Knowledge, Technology, & Policy 18(3): 95–113.Google Scholar
Hacker, Jacob S., and Pierson, Paul. 2010. Winner-Take-All Politics. New York: Simon & Shuster.Google Scholar
Hall, Richard L., and Deardorff, Alan V.. 2006. “Lobbying as Legislative Subsidy.” American Political Science Review 100(1): 69–84.Google Scholar
Heaney, Michael T. 2004. “Outside the Issue Niche: The Multidimensionality of Interest Group Identity.” American Politics Research 32(6): 611–651.Google Scholar
Heaney, Michael T. 2014. “Multiplex Networks and Interest Group Influence Reputation: An Exponential Random Graph Model.” Social Networks 36(1): 66–81.Google Scholar
Hojnacki, Marie, Marchetti, Kathleen M., Baumgartner, Frank R., Berry, Jeffry M., Kimball, David C., and Leech, Beth L.. 2015. “Assessing Business Advantage in Washington Lobbying.” Interest Groups & Advocacy 4(3).Google Scholar
Jones, Bryan D. 2001. Politics and the Architecture of Choice: Bounded Rationality and Governance. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Jones, Bryan D., and Baumgartner, Frank R.. 2005. The Politics of Attention: How Government Prioritizes Problems. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Karpf, David. 2012. The MoveOn Effect: The Unexpected Transformation of American Political Advocacy. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Kersh, Rogan. 2007. “The Well-Informed Lobbyist: Information and Interest Group Lobbying.” In Cigler, Allan J. and Loomis, Burdett A. (eds.), Interest Group Politics, 7th ed. Washington: CQ Press.Google Scholar
Kimball, David C., Baumgartner, Frank R., Berry, Jeffrey M., Hojnacki, Marie, Leech, Beth L., and Summary, Bryce. 2012. “Who Cares about the Lobbying Agenda?” Interest Groups & Advocacy 1(1): 5–25.Google Scholar
Kingdon, John W. 1989. Congressmen’s Voting Decisions. Boston: Little, Brown.Google Scholar
LaPira, Timothy M. 2014. “Lobbying After 9/11: Policy Regime Emergence and Interest Group Mobilization,” Policy Studies Journal 42(2): 226–251.Google Scholar
LaPira, Timothy M. 2015. “Lobbying in the Shadows: How Private Interests Hide from Public Scrutiny, and Why That Matters,” Interest Group Politics, 9th Ed., Eds. Cigler, Allan J., Loomis, Burdett A., and Nownes, Anthony. Washington: CQ Press.Google Scholar
LaPira, Timothy M., Thomas, Herschel F III, and Baumgartner, Frank R.. 2014. “The Two Worlds of Lobbying: Washington Lobbyists in the Core and on the Periphery.” Interest Groups & Advocacy 3(3): 219–245.Google Scholar
Leech, Beth L., Baumgartner, Frank R., LaPira, Timothy M., and Semanko, Nicholas A.. 2005. “Drawing Lobbyists to Washington: Government Activity and the Demand for Advocacy.” Political Research Quarterly 58(1): 19–30.Google Scholar
Lowery, David. 2007. “Why Do Organized Interests Lobby? A Multi-Goal, Multi-Context Theory of Lobbying,” Polity 39: 29–54.Google Scholar
Matthews, Donald R., and Stimson, James A.. 1975. Yeas and Nays: Normal Decision-Making in the US House of Representatives. New York: Wiley.Google Scholar
Mayhew, David R. 2000. America’s Congress: Actions in the Public Sphere, James Madison through Newt Gingrich. New Haven: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
McCarty, Nolan, Poole, Keith T., and Rosenthal, Howard. 2008. Polarized America: The Dance of Ideology and Unequal Riches. Cambridge: M.I.T. Press.Google Scholar
Miler, Kristina C. 2010. Constituency Representation in Congress: The View from Capitol Hill. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Olson, Mancur. 1982. The Rise and Decline of Nations. New Haven: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Page, Benjamin I., Bartels, Larry M., and Seawright, Jason. 2013. “Democracy and the Policy Preferences of Wealthy Americans.” Perspectives on Politics 11(1). 51–73.Google Scholar
Rauch, Jonathan. 1995. Demosclerosis: The Silent Killer of American Government. New York: Three Rivers Press.Google Scholar
Salisbury, Robert. H. 1984. “Interest Representation: The Dominance of Institutions.” American Political Science Review 78(1): 64–76.Google Scholar
Salisbury, Robert. H. 1990. “The Paradox of Interest Groups in Washington—More Groups, Less Clout.” In The New American Political System, 2nd ed., King, Anthony S. (ed.). Washington, DC: American Enterprise Institute.Google Scholar
Schattschneider, Elmer E. 1960. The Semisovereign People: A Realist’s View of Democracy in America. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.Google Scholar
Schlozman, Kay Lehman, Verba, Sidney, and Brady, Henry E.. 2012. The Unheavenly Chorus: Unequal Political Voice and the Broken Promise of American Democracy. Princeton: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Schlozman, Kay Lehman, and Tierney, John T.. 1986. Organized Interests and American Democracy. New York: Harper Collins.Google Scholar
Simon, Herbert A. 1956. “Rational Choice and the Structure of the Environment.” Psychological Review 63(2): 129–138.Google Scholar
Teles, Steven M. 2013. “Kludgeocracy in America.” National Affairs 1(17): 97–114.Google Scholar
Walker, Jack L. 1991. Mobilizing Interest Groups in America: Patrons, Professions, and Social Movements. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.Google Scholar
Whiteman, David. 1995. Communication in Congress: Members, Staff, and the Search for Information. Lawrence, KS: University of Kansas Press.Google Scholar
Wright, John R. 1996. Interest Groups and Congress: Lobbying, Contributions, and Influence. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.Google Scholar

References

“Americans’ Views on Money in Politics.” 2015. New York Times. June 2. Retrieved from www.nytimes.com/interactive/2015/06/02/us/politics/money-in-politics-poll.html?_r=0 (last accessed September 19, 2016).Google Scholar
Ansolabehere, Stephen, de Figueiredo, John, and Snyder, James Jr. 2003. “Why Is There So Little Money in U.S. Politics?” Journal of Economic Perspectives 17(1):105–130.Google Scholar
Ansolabehere, Stephen, and Pettigrew, Stephen. 2014. “Cumulative CCES Common Content (2006–2012).” doi: 10.7910/DVN/26451, Harvard Dataverse, V5.Google Scholar
Bafumi, Joseph, and Herron, Michael. 2010. “Leapfrog Representation and Extremism: A Study of American Voters and Their Members in Congress.” American Political Science Review 104(3): 519–542.Google Scholar
Barber, Michael. 2016. “Representing the Preferences of Donors, Partisans, and Voters in the U.S. Senate.” Public Opinion Quarterly 80(S1): 225–249.Google Scholar
Barber, Michael, Canes-Wrone, Brandice, and Thrower, Sharece. 2017. “Ideologically Sophisticated Donors: Which Candidates Do Individual Contributors Finance?” American Journal of Political Science 61(2): 271–288.Google Scholar
Baron, David P. 1994. “Electoral Competition with Informed and Uninformed Voters.” American Political Science Review 88(1): 33–47.Google Scholar
Bennet, James. 2012. “The New Price of American Politics.” Atlantic Monthly. October. Retrieved from www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2012/10/the/309086/ (last accessed October 22, 2016).Google Scholar
Bonica, Adam. 2013. “Ideology and Interests In the Political Marketplace.” American Journal of Political Science 57(2): 294–311.Google Scholar
Bonica, Adam, and Cox, Gary W.. 2018. “Ideological Migration in the U.S. Congress: Out of Step but Still in Office.” Quarterly Journal of Political Science 13(2): 207–236.Google Scholar
Brown, Clifford W. Jr., Hedges, Roman P., and Powell, Lynda W.. 1980. “Modes of Elite Participation: Contributors to the 1972 Presidential Elections.” American Journal of Political Science 24(2): 259–290.Google Scholar
Canes-Wrone, Brandice, Brady, David W., and Cogan, John F.. 2002. “Out of Step, Out of Office: Electoral Accountability and House Members’ Voting.” American Political Science Review 96(1): 127–140.Google Scholar
Cann, Damon M. 2008. Sharing the Wealth: Members Contributions and the Exchange Theory of Party Influence in the US House of Representatives. Albany, NY: SUNY Press.Google Scholar
Clinton, Joshua D. 2006. “Representation In Congress: Constituents and Roll Calls in the 106th House.” Journal of Politics 68(2): 397–409.Google Scholar
Deering, Christopher J., and Smith, Steven S.. 1997. Congress in Committees, 3rd Edition. Washington, DC: CQ Press.Google Scholar
Democracy Corps. 2012. “Voters Push Back Against Big Money.” Retrieved from www.democracycorps.com/attachments/article/930/dcor.pcaf.postelect.memo.111312.final.pdf (last accessed October 22, 2016).Google Scholar
Desilver, Drew, and Van Kessel, Patrick. 2015. “As More Money Flows into Campaigns, Americans Worry about Its Influence.” Pew Research Center Fact Tank. December 7. Retrieved from www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2015/12/07/as-more-money-flows-into-campaigns-americans-worry-about-its-influence/ (last accessed September 19, 2016).Google Scholar
Erikson, Robert S. 1990. “Roll Calls, Reputations, and Representation in the U.S. State.” Legislative Studies Quarterly 15(4): 623–642.Google Scholar
Erikson, Robert S., and Wright, Gerald C.. 2000. “Representation of Constituency Ideology in Congress.” In Change and Continuity in House Elections, eds. Brady, David W., Cogan, John F., and Ferejohn, John F.. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. Pp. 149–177.Google Scholar
Fiorina, Morris P. 2002. “Parties and Partisanship: A 40-Year Retrospective.” Political Behavior 24(2): 93–115.Google Scholar
Fiorina, Morris P, with Abrams, Samuel J.. 2009. Disconnect: The Breakdown of Representation in American Politics. Norman, OK: University Oklahoma Press.Google Scholar
Fox, Justin, and Rothenberg, Lawrence. 2011. “Influence Without Bribes: A Noncontracting Model of Campaign Giving and Policymaking.” Political Analysis 19(3): 325–341.Google Scholar
Francia, Peter L., Herrnson, Paul S., Green, John C., Powell, Lynda W., and Wilcox, Clyde. 2003. The Financiers of Congressional Elections: Investors, Ideologues, and Intimates. New York: Columbia University Press.Google Scholar
Gailmard, Sean, and Jenkins, Jeffrey A.. 2007. “Negative Agenda Control in the Senate and House: Fingerprints of Majority Party Power.” Journal of Politics 69(3): 689–700.Google Scholar
Gilens, Martin. 2012. Affluence and Influence: Economic Inequality and Political Power in America. Princeton: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Gilens, Martin, and Page, Benjamin I.. 2014. “Testing Theories of American Politics: Elites, Interest Groups, and Average Citizens.” Perspectives on Politics 12(3): 564–581.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gimpel, James G., Lee, Frances E., and Kaminski, Joshua. 2006. “The Political Geography of Campaign Contributions.” Journal of Politics 68 (August): 626–639.Google Scholar
Gimpel, James G., Lee, Frances E., and Pearson-Merkowitz, Shanna. 2008. “The Check Is in the Mail: Interdistrict Funding Flows in Congressional Elections.” American Journal of Political Science 52(2): 373–394.Google Scholar
Hall, Richard L., and Wayman, Frank W.. 1990. “Buying Time: Moneyed Interests and the Mobilization of Bias in Congressional Committees.” American Political Science Review 84(3): 797–820.Google Scholar
Hensel, Daniel. 2016. “New Poll Shows Money in Politics Is a Top Voting Concern.” June 29th. Retrieved from www.issueone.org/new-poll-shows-money-in-politics-is-a-top-voting-concern/ (last accessed September 19, 2016).Google Scholar
Hill, Seth J., and Huber, Gregory A.. 2017. “Representativeness and Motivations of the Contemporary Donorate: Results from Merged Survey and Administrative Records.” Political Behavior 39(1): 3–29.Google Scholar
Jacobson, Gary. 2012. The Politics of Congressional Elections, 8th edition. Boston: Pearson.Google Scholar
Johnson, Bertram. 2010. “Individual Contributions: A Fundraising Advantage for the Ideologically Extreme?” American Politics Research 38(5): 890–908.Google Scholar
La Raja, Raymond J., and Schaffner, Brian F.. 2015. Campaign Finance and Political Polarization: When Purist Prevail. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University of Michigan Press.Google Scholar
Magleby, David B., Goodliffe, Jay, and Olsen, Joseph A.. 2018. Who Donates in Campaigns? The Importance of Message, Messenger, Medium, and Structure. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Masket, Seth E. 2016. The Inevitable Party: Why Attempts to Kill the Party System Fail and How They Weaken the Democracy. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Miller, Warren E., Kinder, Donald R., Rosenstone, Steven J., and the National Election Studies. 1999. National Election Studies, 1988–1992. Merged Senate File [dataset]. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan, Center for Political Studies [producer and distributor].Google Scholar
Milyo, Jeffrey. 2015. “Money in Politics.” Emerging Trends in the Social and Behavioral Science: An Interdisciplinary, Searchable, and Linkable Resource. Edited by Scott, Robert and Kosslyn, Stephen. John Wiley & Sons. Pp. 1–9. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/9781118900772.etrds0228 (last accessed April 27, 2017).Google Scholar
Norrander, Barbara. 2001. “Measuring State Public Opinion with the Senate National Election Study.” State Politics & Policy Quarterly 1(1): 111–125.Google Scholar
Pew Research Center. 2015. “Beyond Distrust: How Americans View Their Government.” Retrieved from www.people-press.org/2015/11/23/beyond-distrust-how-americans-view-their-government/ (last accessed April 27, 2017).Google Scholar
Pew Research Center. 2017. “Public Trust in Government: 1958–2017.” Retrieved from www.people-press.org/2017/12/14/public-trust-in-government-1958-2017/ (last accessed May 23, 2018).Google Scholar
Poole, Keith T., Romer, Thomas, and Rosenthal, Howard. 1987. “The Revealed Preferences of Political Action Committees.” American Economic Review Papers and Proceedings 77(2): 298–302.Google Scholar
Powell, Eleanor Neff. In press. Where Money Matters in Congress: A Window into How Parties Evolve. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Powell, Lynda W. 2013. “The Influence of Campaign Contributions on Legislative Policy.” The Forum: A Journal of Applied Research in Contemporary Politics 11(3): 339–355.Google Scholar
Prokop, Andrew. 2015. “Donald Trump Made One Shockingly Insightful Comment During the First GOP Debate.” Vox, August 6, 2015. Retrieved from www.vox.com/2015/8/6/9114565/donald-trump-debate-money (last accessed May 22, 2018).Google Scholar
Schaffner, Brian and Ansolabehere, Stephen. 2015. “2010–2014 Cooperative Congressional Election Study Panel Survey.” doi: 10.7910/DVN/TOE8l1, Harvard Dataverse, V6.Google Scholar
Stewart, Charles III. 2012. “The Value of Committee Assignments in Congress since 1994.” MIT Political Science Working Paper No. 2012–7. Retrieved from file:///C:/Users/bcwrone/Downloads/SSRN-id2035632.pdf (last accessed April 27, 2017).Google Scholar
Stewart, Charles III, and Reynolds, Mark. 1990. “Television Markets and U.S. Senate Elections.” Legislative Studies Quarterly 15(4): 495–523.Google Scholar
Stone, Walter J., and Simas, Elizabeth N.. 2010. “Candidate Valence and Ideological Positions in U.S. House Elections.” American Journal of Political Science 54(2): 371–388.Google Scholar
Verba, Sidney, Schlozman, Kay L., and Brady, Henry E.. 1995. Voice and Equality: Civic Voluntarism in American Politics. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar

References

Agnone, Jon. 2007. “Amplifying Public Opinion: The Policy Impact of the U.S. Environmental Movement.” Social Forces 85: 1593–1620.Google Scholar
Almuhkhtar, Sarah, Bezaquen, Mercy, Cave, Damien, Chinoy, Sahil, Davis, Kenan, Keller, Josh, Rebecca Lai, K.K., Lee, Jasmine C., Oliver, Rochelle, Park, Haeyoun and Royal, Destinée-Charisse. 2018. “Black Lives Upended By Policing: The Raw Videos Sparking Outrage.” The New York Times. Retrieved from www.nytimes.com/interactive/2017/08/19/us/police-videos-race.html (last accessed March 9, 2018).Google Scholar
Allen, Jonathan. 2018. “Florida Governor Signs Gun-Safety Bill into Law After School Shooting.” Reuters. Retrieved from www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-guns-florida-law/florida-governor-signs-gun-safety-bill-into-law-after-school-shooting-idUSKCN1GL2RA (last accessed March 9, 2018).Google Scholar
Amenta, Edwin. 2006. When Movements Matter: The Townsend Plan and the Rise of Social Security. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Amenta, Edwin, and Caren, Neal. 2004. “The Legislative, Organizational, and Beneficiary Consequences of State-Oriented Challengers.” In The Blackwell Companion to Social Movements, ed. Snow, David, Soule, Sarah A., and Kriesi, Hanspeter. London: Blackwell. Pp. 461–488.Google Scholar
Amenta, Edwin, Caren, Neal, Chiarello, Elizabeth, and Yang, Su. 2010. “The Political Consequences of Social Movements.” Annual Review of Sociology 36: 287–307.Google Scholar
Amenta, Edwin, Carruthers, Bruce G., and Zylan, Yvonne. 1992. “A Hero for the Aged? The Townsend Movement, the Political Mediation Model, and U.S. Old-Age Policy, 1934–1950.” American Journal of Sociology 98: 308–339.Google Scholar
Andrews, Kenneth. 2004. Freedom Is a Constant Struggle: The Mississippi Civil Rights Movement and Its Legacy. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Ansolabehere, Stephen, Snyder, James M. Jr, and Stewart, Charles III. 2000. “Old Voters, New Voters, and the Personal Vote: Using Redistricting to Measure the Incumbency Advantage.” American Journal of Political Science 44: 17–34.Google Scholar
Arnold, R. Douglas. 1990. The Logic of Congressional Action. New Haven: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Arnold, Jenna, Bond, Kanisha, Chenoweth, Erica, and Pressman, Jeremy. 2018. “These Are the Four Largest Protests Since Trump Was Inaugurated.” The Washington Post, Monkey Cage. Retrieved from www.washingtonpost.com/news/monkey-cage/wp/2018/05/31/these-are-the-four-largest-protests-since-trump-was-inaugurated/?noredirect=on&utm_term=.13d90a7ae1ea (last accessed May 31, 2018).Google Scholar
Austen-Smith, David, and Banks, Jeffrey. 1989. “Electoral Accountability and Incumbency.” In Models of Strategic Choice in Politics, ed. Ordeshook, Peter. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. Pp. 121–150.Google Scholar
Banks, Jeffrey S., and Kiewiet, D. Roderick. 1989. “Explaining Patterns of Candidate Competition in Congressional Elections.” American Journal of Political Science 33: 997–1015.Google Scholar
Bartels, Larry M. 1996. “Uninformed Votes: Information Effects in Presidential Elections.” American Journal of Political Science 40: 194–230.Google Scholar
Baybeck, Brady, and McClurg, Scott. 2005. “What Do They Know and How Do They Know It? An Examination of Citizen Awareness of Context.” American Politics Research 33: 492–520.Google Scholar
Beck, Nathaniel, and Katz, Jonathan. 1995. “What to Do (and Not to Do) With Time-Series Cross-Section Data.” American Political Science Review 89: 634–647.Google Scholar
Beck, Nathaniel, and Katz, Jonathan. 2001. “Throwing Out the Baby with the Bath Water: A Comment on Green, Kim and Yoon.” International Organizations 55: 487–495.Google Scholar
Bianco, William T. 1984. “Strategic Decisions on Candidacy in U. S. Congressional Districts.” Legislative Studies Quarterly 9: 351–364.Google Scholar
Black, Merle. 1978. “Racial Composition of Congressional Districts and Support for Federal Voting Rights in the American South.” Social Science Quarterly 59: 435–350.Google Scholar
Bloom, Howard S., and Price, H. Douglas. 1975. “Voter Response to Short-Run Economic Conditions: The Asymmetric Effect of Prosperity and Recession.” The American Political Science Review 69: 1240–1254.Google Scholar
Bullock, Charles. 1981. “Congressional Voting and the Mobilization of a Black Electorate in the South.” Journal of Politics 43: 662–682.Google Scholar
Button, James. 1989. Blacks and Social Change: Impact of the Civil Rights Movement in Southern Communities. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Cava, Marco. 2018. “After Stephon Clark Shooting, Cries for Change — and Painful Echoes of Past Deaths.” USA Today. Retrieved from www.usatoday.com/story/news/2018/03/29/sacramento-hopes-set-national-example-after-stephon-clark-shooting/471713002/ (last accessed March 30, 2018).Google Scholar
Chenoweth, Erica, Pinckney, Jonathan, Pressman, Jeremy, and Zunes, Stephen. 2017. “In Trump’s America, Who’s Protesting and Why? Here’s Our February Report.” The Washington Post, Monkey Cage. Retrieved from www.washingtonpost.com/news/monkey-cage/wp/2017/04/05/in-trumps-america-whos-protesting-and-why-heres-our-february-report/?noredirect=on&utm_term=.022f0062ebc5 (last accessed April 5, 2017).Google Scholar
Chenoweth, Erica, and Pressman, Jeremy. 2017. “Last month, 83% of U.S. protests Were Against Trump.” The Washington Post, Monkey Cage. Retrieved from www.washingtonpost.com/news/monkey-cage/wp/2017/09/25/charlottesville-and-its-aftermath-brought-out-many-protesters-in-august-but-still-more-were-against-trump-and-his-policies/?utm_term=.38e79b8afb9b (last accessed September 28, 2017).Google Scholar
Cho, Wendy, and Rudolph, Thomas. 2008. “Emanating Political Participation: Untangling the Spatial Structure Behind Participation.” British Journal of Political Science 38(2): 273–289.Google Scholar
Claassen, Ryan L. 2007. “Floating Voters and Floating Activists: Political Change and Information.” Political Research Quarterly 60: 124–134.Google Scholar
Costain, Anne, and Costain, Douglas. 1987. “Strategy and Tactics of the Women’s Movement in the United States: The Role of Political Parties.” In The Women’s Movements of the United States and Western Europe, ed. Katzenstein, M. and Mueller, C.. Philadelphia: Temple University Press. Pp. 196–214.Google Scholar
Cover, Albert D. 1977. “One Good Term Deserves Another: The Advantage of Incumbency in Congressional Elections.” American Journal of Political Science 21: 523–541.Google Scholar
Cover, Albert D., and Brumberg, Bruce S.. 1982. “Baby Books and Ballots: The Impact of Congressional Mail on Constituent Opinion.” The American Political Science Review 76: 347–359.Google Scholar
Cox, Gary W., and Katz, Jonathan N.. 1996. “Why Did the Incumbency Advantage in U.S. House Elections Grow?” American Journal of Political Science 40: 478–497.Google Scholar
Damore, David F. 2004. “The Dynamics of Issue Ownership in Presidential Campaigns.” Political Research Quarterly 57: 391–397.Google Scholar
Davenport, Christian, Soule, Sarah, and Armstrong, David. 2011. “Protesting While Black? The Differential Policing of American Activism, 1960 to 1990.” American Sociological Review 76: 152–176.Google Scholar
Delli-Carpini, Michael, and Keeter, Scott. 1996. What Americans Know about Politics and Why It Matters. New Haven: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Del Real, Jose. 2018. “Stephon Clark’s Official Autopsy Conflicts with Earlier Findings.” The New York Times. Retrieved from www.nytimes.com/2018/05/01/us/stephon-clark-official-autopsy.html (last accessed May 1, 2018).Google Scholar
Earl, Jennifer, Soule, Sarah, and McCarthy, John. 2003. “Protest under Fire? Explaining the Policing of Protest.” American Sociological Review 68: 581–606.Google Scholar
Earl, Jennifer S., and Soule, Sarah A.. 2006. “Seeing Blue: A Police-Centered Explanation of Protest Policing.” Mobilization: An International Journal 11: 145–164.Google Scholar
Earl, Jennifer, Martin, Andrew, McCarthy, John D., and Soule, Sarah A.. 2004. “Newspapers and Protest Event Analysis.” Annual Review of Sociology 30: 65–80.Google Scholar
Epstein, David, and Zemsky, Peter. 1995. “Money Talks: Deterring Quality Challengers in Congressional Elections.” The American Political Science Review 89: 295–308.Google Scholar
Eulau, Heinz, and Rothenberg, Lawrence. 1986. “Life Space and Social Networks as Political Contexts.” Political Behavior 8: 130–157.Google Scholar
Fair, Ray C. 1978. “The Effect of Economic Events on Votes for President.” The Review of Economics and Statistics 60: 159–173.Google Scholar
Ferejohn, John. 1986. “Incumbent Performance and Electoral Control.” Public Choice 50: 5–25.Google Scholar
Fetner, Tina. 2008. How the Religious Right Shaped Lesbian and Gay Activism (Social Movements, Protest and Contention). Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press.Google Scholar
Fiorina, Morris P. 1974. Representatives, Roll Calls, and Constituencies. Minneapolis: Lexington Books.Google Scholar
Gelman, Andrew, and King, Gary. 1990. “Estimating Incumbency Advantage without Bias.” American Journal of Political Science 34: 1142–1164.Google Scholar
Gillion, Daniel Q. 2012. “The Influence of Protest Activity on Congressional Behavior: The Scope of Minority Protests in the District.” Journal of Politics 74: 950–962.Google Scholar
Gillion, Daniel Q. 2013. The Political Power of Protest: Minority Activism and Shifts in Public Policy. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Giugni, Marco. 2007. “Useless Protest? A Time-Series Analysis of the Policy Outcomes of Ecology, Antinuclear, and Peace Movements in the United States, 1977–1995.” Mobilization: An International Quarterly 12: 53–77.Google Scholar
Großer, Jens, and Schram, Arthur. 2006. “Neighborhood Information Exchange and Voter Participation: An Experimental Study.” The American Political Science Review 100: 235–248.Google Scholar
Harris, Fredrick and Gillion, Daniel. 2010. “Expanding the Possibilities: Reconceptualizing Political Participation as a Tool Box.” In The Oxford Handbook of American Elections and Political Behavior, ed. Leighley, Jan. Oxford University Press. Pp. 144–161.Google Scholar
Heaney, Michael T. and Rojas, Fabio. 2011. “The Partisan Dynamics of Contention: Demobilization of the Antiwar Movement in the United States, 2007–2009.” Mobilization: An International Journal 16: 41–54.Google Scholar
Huckfeldt, Robert, and Sprague, John. 1987. “Networks in Context: The Social Flow of Political Information.” The American Political Science Review 81: 1197–1216.Google Scholar
Huckshorn, Robert Jack, and Spencer, Robert Clark. 1971. The Politics of Defeat: Campaigning for Congress. Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press.Google Scholar
Jacobson, Gary C. 1987. The Politics of Congressional Elections. Boston: Little, Brown.Google Scholar
Jacobson, Gary C. 1990. “The Effects of Campaign Spending in House Election: New Evidence for Old Arguments.” American Journal of Political Science 34: 334–362.Google Scholar
John, Page, Elmahrek, Adam, and Winton, Richard. 2018. “Hundreds Rally in Sacramento After Stephon Clark Autopsy Raises New Questions in Police Shooting.” Los Angeles Times. Retrieved from www.latimes.com/local/lanow/la-me-stephon-clark-protest-20180331-story.html (last accessed March 31, 2018).Google Scholar
Kasler, Dale, Bizjak, Tony, Chavez, Nashelly, and Sangree, Hudson. 2018. “Protesters Block Golden 1 Center, Again, After Disrupting Council Meeting on Shooting of Stephon Clark.” The Sacramento Bee. Retrieved from www.sacbee.com/latest-news/article207081079.html (last accessed March 28, 2018).Google Scholar
Kenny, Christopher B. 1992. “Political Participation and Effects from the Social Environment.” American Journal of Political Science 36: 259–267.Google Scholar
Kernell, Samuel. 1978. “Explaining Presidential Popularity. How Ad Hoc Theorizing, Misplaced Emphasis, and Insufficient Care in Measuring One’s Variables Refuted Common Sense and Led Conventional Wisdom Down the Path of Anomalies.” The American Political Science Review 72: 506–522.Google Scholar
King, Brayden, Bentele, Keith, and Soule, Sarah. 2007. “Protest and Policymaking: Explaining Fluctuation in Congressional Attention to Rights Issues, 1960–1986.” Social Forces 86: 137–163.Google Scholar
Koseff, Alexei. 2018. “Police Could Only Use Deadly Force When ‘Necessary’ under New California proposal.” The Sacramento Bee. Retrieved from www.sacbee.com/latest-news/article207741689.html (last accessed April 10, 2018).Google Scholar
Kramer, Gerald H. 1971. “Short-Term Fluctuations in U.S. Voting Behavior, 1896–1964.” The American Political Science Review 65: 131–143.Google Scholar
Lee, Taeku. 2002. Mobilizing Public Opinion: Black Insurgency and Racial Attitudes in the Civil Rights. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Leuthold, David A. 1968. Electioneering in a Democracy: Campaigns for Congress. New York: John Wiley & Sons.Google Scholar
Levitt, Steven D., and Wolfram, Catherine D.. 1997. “Decomposing the Sources of Incumbency Advantage in the U. S. House.” Legislative Studies Quarterly 22: 45–60.Google Scholar
Lohmann, Susanne. 1994. “Information Aggregation through Costly Political Action.” The American Economic Review 84: 518–530.Google Scholar
Luders, Joseph E. 2010. The Civil Rights Movement and the Logic of Social Change. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Malhotra, Neil, and Kuo, Alexander G.. 2008. “Attributing Blame: The Public’s Response to Hurricane Katrina.” The Journal of Politics 70: 120–135.Google Scholar
Mann, Thomas E., and Wolfinger, Raymond E.. 1980. “Candidates and Parties in Congressional Elections.” The American Political Science Review 74: 617–632.Google Scholar
McAdam, Doug. 1982. Political Process and the Development of Black Insurgency, 1930–1970. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
McAdam, Doug, and Tarrow, Sidney. 2010. “Ballots and Barricades: On the Reciprocal Relationship between Elections and Social Movements.” Perspectives on Politics 8: 529–542.Google Scholar
McAdam, Doug, and Tarrow, Sidney. 2013. “Social Movements and Elections: Toward a Broader Understanding of the Political Context of Contention.” Pp. 325–346 in The Future of Social Movement Research: Dynamics, Mechanisms, and Processes. Edited by van Stekelenburg, Jacquelien, Roggeband, Conny, and Klandermans, Bert. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.Google Scholar
McAdam, Doug, and Yang, Su. 2002. “The War at Home: Antiwar Protests and Congressional Voting, 1965 to 1973.” American Sociological Review 67: 696–721.Google Scholar
McKelvey, Richard D., and Ordeshook, Peter C.. 1986. “Information, Electoral Equilibria, and the Democratic Ideal.” The Journal of Politics 48: 909–937.Google Scholar
McPhee, William. 1963. “Note on a Campaign Simulator.” In Formal Theories of Mass Behavior, ed. McPhee, William. New York: Free Press.Google Scholar
McVeigh, Rory, Myers, Daniel J., and Sikkink, David. 2004. “Corn, Klansmen, and Coolidge: Structure and Framing in Social Movements.” Social Forces 83: 653–690.Google Scholar
Meltzer, Allan H., and Vellrath, Marc. 1975. “The Effects of Economic Policies on Votes for the Presidency: Some Evidence from Recent Elections: Reply.” Journal of Law and Economics 18: 803–805.Google Scholar
Olzak, Susan, and Soule, Sarah. 2009. “Cross-Cutting Influences of Environmental Protest and Legislation.” Social Forces 88: 201–225.Google Scholar
Page, Benjamin I., and Shapiro, Robert Y.. 1992. The Rational Public: Fifty Years of Trends in Americans’ Policy Preferences (American Politics and Political Economy Series). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Petrocik, John R, Benoit, William L., and Hansen, Glenn J.. 2003. “Issue Ownership and Presidential Campaigning, 1952–2000.” Political Science Quarterly 118: 599–626.Google Scholar
Petrocik, John R. 1996. “Issue Ownership in Presidential Elections, with a 1980 Case Study.” American Journal of Political Science 40(3): 825–250.Google Scholar
Prior, Markus. 2006. “The Incumbent in the Living Room: The Rise of Television and the Incumbency Advantage in U.S. House Elections.” The Journal of Politics 68: 657–673.Google Scholar
Rosenstone, Steven J., and Hansen, John Mark. 1993. Mobilization, Participation, and Democracy in America. New York: Macmillan.Google Scholar
Sigelman, Lee, and Buell, Emmett H. Jr. 2004. “Avoidance or Engagement? Issue Convergence in U.S. Presidential Campaigns, 1960–2000.” American Journal of Political Science 48: 650–661.Google Scholar
Soule, Sarah, and Davenport, Christian. 2009. “Velvet Glove, Iron Fist or Even Hand? Protest Policing in the United States, 1960–1990.” Mobilization: An International Quarterly 14: 1–22.Google Scholar
Soule, Sarah, McAdam, Doug, McCarthy, John, and Su, Yang. 1999. “Protest Events: Cause or Consequence of State Action? The U.S. Women’s Movement and Federal Congressional Activities, 1956–1979.” Mobilization: An International Quarterly 4: 239–256.Google Scholar
Soule, Sarah A., and King, Brayden. 2006. “The Stages of the Policy Process and the Equal Rights Amendment, 1972–1982.” American Journal of Sociology 111: 1871–1909.Google Scholar
Soule, Sarah A., and Olzak, Susan. 2004. “When Do Movements Matter? The Politics of Contingency and the Equal Rights Amendment.” American Sociological Review 69: 473–497.Google Scholar
Soule, Sarah A., and King, Brayden G. 2008. “Competition and Resource Partitioning in Three Social Movement Industries.” American Journal of Sociology 113: 1568–1610.Google Scholar
Soule, Sarah A., and Earl, Jennifer. 2005. “A Movement Society Evaluated: Collective Protest in the United States, 1960–1986.” Mobilization 10(3): 345–364.Google Scholar
Sprague, John. 1982. “Is There a Micro Theory Consistent with Contextual Analysis.” In Strategies of Political Inquiry, ed. Ostrom, Elinor. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Sulkin, Tracy. 2005. Issue Politics in Congress. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Thrush, Glenn, and Haberman, Maggie. 2017. “Trump Is Criticized for Not Calling Out White Supremacists.” The New York Times. Retrieved from www.nytimes.com/2017/08/12/us/trump-charlottesville-protest-nationalist-riot.html (last accessed August 12, 2017).Google Scholar
Tufte, Edward R. 1975. “Determinants of the Outcomes of Midterm Congressional Elections.” The American Political Science Review 69: 812–826.Google Scholar
Van Dyke, Nella, Soule, Sarah A., and Taylor, Verta A.. 2004. “The Targets of Social Movements: Beyond a Focus on the State.” Research in Social Movements, Conflict and Change 25: 27–51.Google Scholar
Verba, Sidney, Schlozman, Kay Lehman, and Brady, Henry. 1995. Voice and Equality: Civic Voluntarism in American Politics. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Wang, Amy. 2017. “Trump Breaks Silence on Charlottesville: ‘No Place for This Kind of Violence in America.’” The Washington Post Monkey Cage. Retrieved from www.washingtonpost.com/news/the-fix/wp/2017/08/12/trump-responds-to-charlottesville-protests/?utm_term=.0b39eaef6b97 (last accessed August 12, 2017).Google Scholar
Wang, Dan J., and Soule, Sarah A.. 2012. “Social Movement Organizational Collaboration: Networks of Learning and the Diffusion of Protest Tactics, 1960–1995.” The American Journal of Sociology 117(6): 1674–1722.Google Scholar
Whitby, Kenny J. 1987. “Measuring Congressional Responsiveness to the Policy Interests of Black Constituents.” Social Science Quarterly 68: 367–377.Google Scholar
Young, Lisa. 1996. “Women’s Movements and Political Parties.” Party Politics 2: 229–250.Google Scholar

References

Abramowitz, Alan I., and Webster, Steven. 2016. “The Rise of Negative Partisanship and the Nationalization of American Elections in the 21st Century.” Electoral Studies 41: 12–22.Google Scholar
Achen, Christopher H., and Bartels, Larry M.. 2016. Democracy for Realists: Why Elections Do Not Produce Responsive Government. Princeton: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Aldrich, John H. 2011. Why Parties? A Second Look. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Allison, Bill. 2016. “Millions from Maxed-Out Clinton Donors Flowed through Loophole.” Bloomberg, August 26. Retrieved from www.bloomberg.com/politics/graphics/2016-dnc-contributions/ (last accessed December 8, 2018).Google Scholar
American National Election Studies. 2018. The ANES Guide to Public Opinion and Electoral Behavior. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan. Retrieved from www.electionstudies.org (last accessed December 8, 2018).Google Scholar
APSA Committee on Political Parties. 1950. Toward a More Responsible Two-Party System: A Report of the Committee on Political Parties of the American Political Science Association. New York: Rinehart.Google Scholar
Azari, Julia. 2016. “Weak Parties and Strong Partisanship are a Bad Combination,” Vox, November 3. Retrieved from www.vox.com/mischiefs-of-faction/2016/11/3/13512362/weak-parties-strong-partisanship-bad-combination (last accessed December 8, 2018).Google Scholar
Ball, Molly. 2013. “The Fall of the Heritage Foundation and the Death of Republican Ideas.” The Atlantic, September 25. Retrieved from www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2013/09/the-fall-of-the-heritage-foundation-and-the-death-of-republican-ideas/279955/ (last accessed January 2, 2019).Google Scholar
Bawn, Kathleen, Cohen, Marty, Karol, David, Masket, Seth, Noel, Hans, and Zaller, John. 2012. “A Theory of Parties: Groups, Policy Demands, and Nominations in American Politics.” Perspectives on Politics 10: 571–597.Google Scholar
Beck, Paul A., and Heidemann, Erik D.. 2014. “Changing Strategies in Grassroots Canvassing: 1956−2012.” Party Politics 20: 261–274.Google Scholar
Berman, Ari. 2015. Give Us the Ballot: The Modern Struggle for Voting Rights in America. New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux.Google Scholar
Blyth, Mark, and Katz, Richard S.. 2005. “From Catch-all Politics to Cartelisation: The Political Economy of the Cartel Party.” West European Politics 28: 33–60.Google Scholar
Borchers, Callum. 2016. “We Need More Questions Like This One from Jake Tapper to Debbie Wasserman Schultz.” Washington Post, February 12. Retrieved from www.washingtonpost.com/news/the-fix/wp/2016/02/12/we-need-more-questions-like-this-one-from-jake-tapper-to-debbie-wasserman-schultz-video/ (last accessed December 8, 2018).Google Scholar
Boyle, Kevin. 1995. The UAW and the Heyday of American Liberalism. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar
Broockman, David, and Kalla, Joshua. 2014. “Experiments Show This Is the Best Way to Win Campaigns. But Is Anyone Actually Doing It?” Vox, November 13. Retrieved from www.vox.com/2014/11/13/7214339/campaign-ground-game (last accessed December 8, 2018).Google Scholar
Buffa, Dudley W. 1984. Union Power and American Democracy: The UAW and the Democratic Party, 1935–72. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.Google Scholar
Burnham, Walter Dean. 2015. “Voter Turnout and the Path to Plutocracy.” In Polarized Politics: The Impact of Divisiveness in the US Political System,” edited by Crotty, William, pp. 27–70. Boulder: Lynne Rienner.Google Scholar
Cain, Bruce E. 2014. Democracy, More or Less: America’s Political Reform Quandary. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Campbell, Andrea Louise. 2007. “Parties, Electoral Participation, and Shifting Voting Blocs.” In The Transformation of American Politics: Activist Government and the Rise of Conservatism, edited by Pierson, Paul and Skocpol, Theda, 68–102. Princeton: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Campbell, John L., and Pederson, Ove K.. 2014. The National Origins of Policy Ideas: Knowledge Regimes in the United States, France, Germany and Denmark. Princeton: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Coffey, Daniel. 2011. “More Than a Dime’s Worth: Using State Party Platforms to Assess the Degree of American Party Polarization.” PS: Political Science & Politics 44: 331–337.Google Scholar
Cohen, Marty, Karol, David, Noel, Hans, and Zaller, John. 2008. The Party Decides: Presidential Nominations Before and After Reform. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Cohen, Marty, Karol, David, Noel, Hans, and Zaller, John. 2016. “Party versus Faction—In the Reformed Presidential Nominating System.” PS: Political Science & Politics 49: 701–708.Google Scholar
Coleman, John J. 1994. “The Resurgence of Party Organization? A Dissent from the New Orthodoxy.” In The State of the Parties: The Changing Role of Contemporary American Parties, edited by Shea, Daniel M. and Green, John C., 311–327. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield.Google Scholar
Confessore, Nicholas, and Shorey, Rachel. 2016. “Democrats Are Raking in Money, Thanks to Suit by Republicans.” The New York Times, October 1, p. A11.Google Scholar
Conley, Brian. 2013. “The Politics of Party Renewal: The ‘Service Party’ and the Origins of the Post-Goldwater Republican Right.” Studies in American Political Development 27: 51–67.Google Scholar
Conway, M. Margaret. 1983. “Republican Political Party Nationalization, Campaign Activities, and Their Implications for the Party System.” Publius 13: 1–17.Google Scholar
Cotter, Cornelius B., and Bibby, John S.. 1980. “Institutional Development of Parties and the Thesis of Party Decline.” Political Science Quarterly 95: 1–27.Google Scholar
Crenson, Matthew A., and Ginsberg, Benjamin. 2002. Downsizing Democracy: How America Sidelined Its Citizens and Privatized Its Public. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.Google Scholar
Cronin, Thomas E. 1986. “On the American Presidency: A Conversation with James MacGregor Burns.” Political Science Quarterly 16: 528–542.Google Scholar
Darr, Joshua P., and Levendusky, Matthew S.. 2014. “Relying on the Ground Game: The Placement and Effect of Campaign Field Offices.” American Politics Research 42: 529–548.Google Scholar
Delton, Jennifer A. 2002. Making Minnesota Liberal: Civil Rights and the Transformation of the Democratic Party. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.Google Scholar
Denizet-Lewis, Benoit. 2016. “How Do You Change Voters’ Minds? Have a Conversation.” The New York Times Magazine, April 7, p. 48.Google Scholar
Dionne, E.J. Jr. 2014. “The Reformicons.” Democracy: A Journal of Ideas, Summer.Google Scholar
Donovan, Herbert D.A. 1925. The Barnburners: A Study of the Internal Movements in the Political History of New York State and of the Resulting Changes in Political Affiliation, 1830–1852. New York: New York University Press.Google Scholar
Douthat, Ross, and Salam, Reihan. 2008. Grand New Party: How Republicans Can Win the Working Class and Save the American Dream. New York: Doubleday.Google Scholar
Dovere, Edward-Isaac. 2016. “How Clinton Lost Michigan — and Blew the Election.” Politico, December 14. Retrieved from www.politico.com/story/2016/12/michigan-hillary-clinton-trump-232547 (last accessed December 8, 2018).Google Scholar
Earle, Jonathan H. 2004. Jacksonian Antislavery and the Politics of Free Soil. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.Google Scholar
Enos, Ryan D. and Fowler, Anthony. 2018. “Aggregate Effects of Large-Scale Campaigns on Voter Turnout.” Political Science Research and Methods 6: 733–751.Google Scholar
Enos, Ryan D., and Hersh, Eitan D.. 2015. “Party Activists as Campaign Advertisers: The Ground Campaign as a Principal-Agent Problem.” American Political Science Review 109: 252–278.Google Scholar
Epstein, Leon. 1986. Political Parties in the American Mold. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.Google Scholar
Fiorina, Morris P. 1980. “The Decline of Collective Responsibility in American Politics.” Daedalus: 12–32.Google Scholar
Fraga, Bernard L., and Hersh, Eitan D.. 2016. “Why is There So Much Competition in U.S. Elections?” Working paper. Retrieved from www.eitanhersh.com/uploads/7/9/7/5/7975685/fraga_hersh_compet_v3_1.pdf (last accessed December 8, 2018).Google Scholar
Galchin, Rivka. 2018. “The Teaching Moment.” The New Yorker, June 4, pp. 38–43.Google Scholar
Galvin, Daniel J. 2009. Presidential Party Building: Dwight D. Eisenhower to George W. Bush. Princeton: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Gerring, John. 1998. Party Ideologies in America, 1828–1996. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Gordon, Soren, Webb, Clayton McLaughlin, and Wood, B. Dan. 2014. “The President, Polarization and the Party Platforms.” The Forum 12: 169–189.Google Scholar
Green, Donald P., and Gerber, Alan S.. 2015. Get Out the Vote: How to Increase Voter Turnout, 3rd ed. Washington: Brookings Institution Press.Google Scholar
Greenblatt, Alan. 2015. “The Waning Power of State Political Parties.” Governing, December. Retrieved from www.governing.com/topics/politics/gov-waning-power-state-parties.html (last accessed December 8, 2018).Google Scholar
Grossmann, Matt, and Hopkins, David A.. 2016. Asymmetric Politics: Ideological Republicans and Group Interest Democrats. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Hacker, Jacob S., and Pierson, Paul. 2010. Winner Take All Politics: How Washington Made the Rich Richer—and Turned Its Back on the Middle Class. New York: Simon & Schuster.Google Scholar
Hacker, Jacob S., and Pierson, Paul. 2014. “After the Master Theory: Downs, Schattschneider, and the Rebirth of Policy-Focused Analysis.” Perspectives on Politics 12: 643–662.Google Scholar
Hasen, Richard L. 2012. The Voting Wars: From Florida 2000 to the Next Election Meltdown. New Haven: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Heaney, Michael T., and Rojas, Fabio. 2015. Party in the Street: The Antiwar Movement and the Democratic Party After 9/11. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Heilbrunn, Jacob. 1997. “The Moynihan Enigma.” The American Prospect, July.Google Scholar
Herrnson, Paul S. 1988. Party Campaigning in the 1980s. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Hofstadter, Richard. 1969. The Idea of a Party System: The Rise of Legitimate Opposition in the United States, 1780–1840. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Ignazi, Piero. 2014. “Power and the (Il)legitimacy of Parties: An Unavoidable Paradox of Contemporary Democracy?” Party Politics 20: 160–169.Google Scholar
Jacobson, Louis. 2013. “Looking Back at Howard Dean’s Fifty State Strategy.” Governing, May 6.Google Scholar
Kamarck, Elaine. 2006. “Assessing Howard Dean’s Fifty State Strategy and the 2006 Midterm Elections.” The Forum 4. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.2202/1540–8884.1141 (last accessed December 8, 2018).Google Scholar
Katz, Richard S., and Kolodny, Robin. 1994. “Party Organization as an Empty Vessel: Parties in American Politics.” In How Parties Organize: Change and Adaptation in Party Organizations in Western Democracies, edited by Katz, Richard S. and Mair, Peter, pp. 23–50. London: Sage.Google Scholar
Katz, Richard S., and Mair, Peter. 1995. “Changing Models of Party Organization and Party Democracy: The Emergence of the Cartel Party.” Party Politics 1: 5–28.Google Scholar
Katz, Richard S., and Mair, Peter. 2009. “The Cartel Party Thesis: A Restatement.” Perspectives on Politics 7: 753–766.Google Scholar
Katznelson, Ira. 1985. “Working Class Formation and the State: Nineteenth Century England in American Perspective.” In Bringing the State Back In, edited by Evans, Peter B., Reuschemeyer, Dietrich, and Skocpol, Theda, 257–284. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Keith, Bruce E., Magleby, David B., Nelson, Candice J., Orr, Elizabeth A., Westlye, Mark C., and Wolfinger, Raymond E.. 1992. The Myth of the Independent Voter. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Klinkner, Philip A. 1994. The Losing Parties: Out-Party National Committees, 1956–1992 (New Haven: Yale University Press).Google Scholar
Koger, Gregory, Masket, Seth, and Noel, Hans. 2009. “Partisan Webs: Information Exchange and Party Networks.” British Journal of Political Science 39: 633–653.Google Scholar
Kuttner, Robert. 2017. “Q&A: A New 50-State Strategy.” American Prospect, January 17. Retrieved from http://prospect.org/article/qa-new-50-state-strategy (last accessed December 8, 2018).Google Scholar
La Raja, Raymond J. 2013. “Richer Parties, Better Politics? Party-Centered Campaign Finance Laws and American Democracy,” The Forum 11: 313–338.Google Scholar
La Raja, Raymond J., and Schaffner, Brian. 2015. Campaign Finance and Political Polarization: When Purists Prevail. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.Google Scholar
Layman, Geoffrey C., Carsey, Thomas M., Green, John C., and Herrara, Richard. 2010. “Activists and Conflict Extension in American Party Politics.” American Political Science Review 104: 324–346.Google Scholar
Lee, Frances E. 2016. Insecure Majorities: Congress and the Perpetual Campaign. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Lichtenstein, Nelson. 1995. The Most Dangerous Man in Detroit: Walter Reuther and the Fate of American Labor. New York: Basic Books.Google Scholar
Mair, Peter. 2013. Ruling the Void: The Hollowing of Western Democracy. London: Verso.Google Scholar
Mann, Thomas E., and Dionne, E.J. Jr. 2015. “The Futility of Nostalgia and the Romanticism of the New Political Realists: Why Praising the 19th-Century Political Machine Won’t Solve the 21st Century’s Problems.” Brookings Institution, June.Google Scholar
Masket, Seth E. 2009. “Did Obama’s Ground Game Matter?: The Influence of Local Field Offices during the 2008 Presidential Election.” Public Opinion Quarterly 73: 1023–1039.Google Scholar
McGerr, Michael E. 1988. The Decline of Popular Politics: The American North, 1865–1928. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
McKenna, Elizabeth, and Han, Hahrie. 2015. Groundbreakers: How Obama’s 2.2 Million Volunteers Transformed Campaigning in America. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Michels, Robert. 1915. Political Parties: A Sociological Study of the Oligarchical Tendencies of Modern Democracy. Translated by Paul, Eden and Paul, Cedar. Republished Glencoe: Free Press, 1949.Google Scholar
Mudge, Stephanie L., and Chen, Anthony S.. 2014. “Political Parties and the Sociological Imagination: Past, Present, and Future Directions.” Annual Review of Sociology 40: 305–340.Google Scholar
Muirhead, Russell. 2014. The Promise of Party in a Polarized Age. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Muirhead, Russell, and Rosenblum, Nancy L.. 2016. “Speaking Truth to Conspiracy: Partisanship and Trust.” Critical Review 28: 63–88.Google Scholar
Nielsen, Rasmus Kleis. 2012. Ground Wars: Personalized Communication in Political Campaigns. Princeton: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Oberlander, Jonathan, and Weaver, R. Kent. 2015. “Unraveling from Within? The Affordable Care Act and Self-Undermining Policy Feedbacks.” The Forum 13: 37–62.Google Scholar
Olsen-Phillips, Peter, Choma, Russ, Bryner, Sarah, and Weber, Doug. 2015. “The Political One Percent of the One Percent in 2014: Mega Donors Fuel Rising Cost of Elections.” Center for Responsive Politics, April 30. Retrieved from www.opensecrets.org/news/2015/04/the-political-one-percent-of-the-one-percent-in-2014-mega-donors-fuel-rising-cost-of-elections/ (last accessed December 8, 2018).Google Scholar
Overby, Peter. 2015. “Why State Parties Are Losing Out on Political Cash.” NPR, February 9. Retrieved from www.npr.org/2015/02/09/384875874/state-political-parties-blames-congress-for-lack-of-funds (last accessed December 8, 2018).Google Scholar
Paddock, Joel. 1992. “Interparty Ideological Politics in 11 State Parties, 1956–1980.” Western Political Quarterly 45: 751–760.Google Scholar
Parenti, Christian. 2016. “Garbage In, Garbage Out.” Jacobin, November 18. Retrieved from www.jacobinmag.com/2016/11/clinton-campaign-gotv-unions-voters-rust-belt/ (last accessed December 8, 2018).Google Scholar
Parker, Christopher S., and Barreto, Matt. 2013. Change They Can’t Believe in: The Tea Party and Reactionary Politics in America. Princeton: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Persily, Nathaniel. 2015. “Stronger Parties as a Solution to Polarization.” In Solutions to Political Polarization in America, edited by Persily, Nathaniel, pp. 123–135. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Pildes, Richard H. 2014. “Romanticizing Democracy, Political Fragmentation, and the Decline of Government.” Yale Law Journal 124: 804–852.Google Scholar
Piven, Frances Fox, and Cloward, Richard A.. 1988. Why Americans Don’t Vote. New York: Pantheon Books.Google Scholar
Plotke, David. 1996. “Party Reform as Failed Democratic Renewal in the United States, 1968–1972.” Studies in American Political Development 10: 223–288.Google Scholar
Polsby, Nelson. 1983. The Consequences of Party Reform. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Pomper, Gerald M. and Weiner, Marc D.. 2000. “Toward a More Responsible Two-Party Voter: The Evolving Bases of Partisanship.” In Responsible Partisanship? The Evolution of American Political Parties Since 1950, edited by Green, John C. and Herrnson, Paul S., pp. 181–200. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas.Google Scholar
Przeworski, Adam, and Sprague, John. 1986. Paper Stones: A History of Electoral Socialism. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Putnam, Lara, and Skocpol, Theda. 2018. “Middle America Reboots Democracy.” Democracy Journal, February 20. Retrieved from https://democracyjournal.org/arguments/middle-america-reboots-democracy/ (last accessed December 8, 2018).Google Scholar
Putnam, Robert D. 2000. Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community. New York: Simon & Schuster.Google Scholar
Rae, Nicol C. 2007. “Be Careful What You Wish For: The Rise of Responsible Parties in American National Politics.” Annual Review of Political Science 10: 169–191.Google Scholar
Rae, Nicol C. 2012. “The Diminishing Oddness of American Political Parties.” In The Parties Respond: Changes in American Parties and Campaigns, 5th ed., edited by Brewer, Mark D. and Maisel, L. Sandy, 25–46. Boulder: Westview Press.Google Scholar
Rahman, K. Sabeel. 2016. Democracy against Domination. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Rakove, Milton L. 1975. Don’t Make No Waves … Don’t Back No Losers: An Insider’s Analysis of the Daley Machine. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.Google Scholar
Ranney, Austin. 1975. Curing the Mischiefs of Faction: Party Reform in America. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Ranney, Austin, and Kendall, Willmoore. 1956. Democracy and the American Party System. New York: Harcourt, Brace and Company.Google Scholar
Rauch, Jonathan. 2015. “Political Realism: How Hacks, Machines, Big Money, and Back-Room Deals can Strengthen American Democracy.” Brookings Institution, May.Google Scholar
Reichley, A. James. 1985. “The Rise of National Parties.” In The New Direction in American Politics, edited by Chubb, John E. and Peterson, Paul E., 175–200. Washington: Brookings Institution Press.Google Scholar
Ricci, David M. 1993. The Transformation of American Politics: The New Washington and the Rise of Think Tanks. New Haven: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Rich, Andrew. 2005. Think Tanks, Public Policy, and the Politics of Expertise. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Ronanye, Kathleen. 2017. “Out of Power, State Dems Frustrated with National Committee.” Associated Press, January 3. Retrieved from http://bigstory.ap.org/article/4348e5c51f544fadb4f9229602c495d4 (last accessed December 8, 2018).Google Scholar
Roscoe, Douglas D. and Jenkins, Shannon. 2014. “Changes in Local Party Structure and Activity, 1980–2008.” In The State of the Parties: The Changing Role of Contemporary American Parties, 7th ed., edited by Green, John C., Coffey, Daniel J., and Cohen, David B., pp. 287–302. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield.Google Scholar
Rosenblum, Nancy L. 2008. On the Side of the Angels: An Appreciation of Parties and Partisanship. Princeton: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Rosenfeld, Sam. 2018. The Polarizers: Postwar Architects of Our Partisan Age. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Samuels, David, and Shugart, Matthew. 2010. Presidents, Parties, and Prime Ministers: How the Separation of Powers Affects Party Organization and Behavior. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Schattschneider, E.E. 1942. Party Government. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.Google Scholar
Schattschneider, E.E. 1956. “The Functional Approach to Party Government.” In Modern Political Parties: Approaches to Comparative Politics, edited by Neumann, Sigmund, pp. 194–215. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Schickler, Eric. 2016. Racial Realignment: The Transformation of American Liberalism, 1933–1965. Princeton: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Schlozman, Daniel. 2015. When Movements Anchor Parties: Electoral Alignments in American History. Princeton: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Schlozman, Daniel. 2016. “The Lists Told Us Otherwise.” n+1, December 24. Retrieved from https://nplusonemag.com/online-only/online-only/the-lists-told-us-otherwise/ (last accessed December 8, 2018).Google Scholar
Schmitt, Mark. 2015. “Democratic Romanticism and Its Critics.” Democracy: A Journal of Ideas, Spring.Google Scholar
Shafer, Byron E. 2010. “The Pure Partisan Institution: National Party Conventions as Research Sites.” In The Oxford Handbook of American Political Parties and Interest Groups, edited by Maisel, L. Sandy and Berry, Jeffrey M., 264–284. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Shahid, Waleed. 2016. “It’s Time for a Tea Party of the Left.” The Nation, May 10. Retrieved from www.thenation.com/article/its-time-for-a-tea-party-of-the-left/ (last accessed December 8, 2018).Google Scholar
Sheingate, Adam. 2016. Building a Business of Politics: The Rise of Political Consulting and the Transformation of American Democracy. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Shefter, Martin. 1994. Political Parties and the State: The American Historical Experience. Princeton: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Skocpol, Theda. 2003. Diminished Democracy: From Membership to Management in American Civic Life. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press.Google Scholar
Skocpol, Theda. 2017. “A Guide to Rebuilding the Democratic Party, From the Ground Ip.” Vox, January 5. Retrieved from www.vox.com/the-big-idea/2017/1/5/14176156/rebuild-democratic-party-dnc-strategy (last accessed December 8, 2018).Google Scholar
Skowronek, Stephen. 1982. Building a New American State: The Expansion of National Administrative Capacities, 1880–1920. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Smidt, Corwin D. 2015. “Polarization and the Decline of the American Floating Voter.” American Journal of Political Science. doi:10.1111/ajps.12218.Google Scholar
Stahl, Jason. 2016. Right Moves: The Conservative Think Tank in American Political Culture Since 1945. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.Google Scholar
Stokes, Susan. 1999. “Political Parties and Democracy.” Annual Reviews in Political Science 2: 243–267.Google Scholar
Thurber, Timothy N. 1999. The Politics of Equality: Hubert H. Humphrey and the African-American Freedom Struggle. New York: Columbia University Press.Google Scholar
Trende, Sean. 2013. “The Case of the Missing White Voters, Revisited.” Real Clear Politics, June 21. Retrieved from www.realclearpolitics.com/articles/2013/06/21/the_case_of_the_missing_white_voters_revisited_118893.html (last accessed December 8, 2018).Google Scholar
Vogel, Kenneth P., and Arnsdorf, Isaac. 2016. “Clinton Fundraising Leaves Little for State Parties.” Politico, May 2. Retrieved from www.politico.com/story/2016/04/clinton-fundraising-leaves-little-for-state-parties-222670 (last accessed December 8, 2018).Google Scholar
Wagner, John. 2016. “Bernie Sanders, Elizabeth Warren Teaming Up Sunday to Pitch Clinton to Progressives.” Washington Post, October 16. Retrieved from www.washingtonpost.com/news/post-politics/wp/2016/10/16/bernie-sanders-elizabeth-warren-teaming-up-sunday-to-pitch-clinton-to-progressives/ (last accessed December 8, 2018).Google Scholar
Wasserman, David. 2013. “Introducing the 2014 Cook Political Report Partisan Voter Index.” Cook Political Report, April 4. Retrieved from http://cookpolitical.com/house/pvi (last accessed December 8, 2018).Google Scholar
Weaver, R. Kent. 1989. “The Changing World of Think Tanks,” PS: Political Science and Politics 22: 563–578.Google Scholar
Weir, Margaret. 1998. “Political Parties and Social Policymaking.” In The Social Divide: Political Parties and the Future of Activist Government, edited by Weir, Margaret, pp. 1–45. Washington: Brookings Institution Press.Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure [email protected] is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×