The occurrence frequency distributions (size distributions) are the most important diagnostics for self-organized criticality systems. There are at least three formats for size distributions: (i) the differential size distribution function, (ii) the cumulative size distribution function, and (iii) the rank-order plot. Each of the three formats (or methods) has at least three ranges of event sizes: (i) a range with statistically incomplete sampling; (ii) an inertial range or power law fitting range with statistically complete sampling; and (iii) a range bordering finite system sizes. Only the intermediate range with power law behavior should be used to determine the power law slope from fitting the observed size distributions. The establishment of power law functions in a given observed size distribution depends crucially on the choice of the fitting range, which should have a logarithmic range of at least 2–3 decades. Often the fitted distribution functions exhibit significant deviations from an ideal power law and can be fitted better with alternative functions, such as log-normal distributions, Pareto type-II distributions, and Weibull distributions.

Among stellar systems, we find many with applications of SOC, such as stellar flares or pulsar glitches. Stellar flares occur mostly in the wavelength ranges of ultraviolet, soft X-rays and UV, and in visible light. A breakthrough in new stellar data was accomplished with the Kepler spacecraft, which allowed unprecedented detections of exoplanets, while the same light curves could be searched for large stellar flares. Exploiting these promising new datasets, one finds that most stellar flare datasets exhibit dominant size distributions that converges to a power law slope of , regardless of the star type. The size distributions of pulsar glitches are mostly found outside of the valid range of the Standard FD-SOC model and thus require a different model. Power law fits are not always superior to fits with the log-normal function or Weibull function. This discrepancy between observed and modeled power law slopes in stellar SOC systems is mostly due to small-number statistics of the samples, incomplete sampling near the lower threshold, and due to ill-defined power law fitting ranges, which can cause significant deviations from ideal power laws.

Continuing the analysis in Chapter 9, this chapter considers how changing international security constellations have contributed to the remilitarization of democracy. It argues that international antiterror programmes have destabilized the foundations of constitutional law. On one hand, such policies have redefined national security objectives, such that the negotiated component of constitutional law is weakened. On the other hand, such policies have fundamentally altered the role of international human rights law in global society. As a result, states have been able to legitimate more directly militarized actions towards their own populations and towards the populations of other states.

This chapter focuses on the barriers that LGBTIQ people continue to experience across a range of sectors, including the workplace, schools, healthcare and social care provision, and counselling and psychological services. Whilst some positive changes have occurred, this chapter highlights the ongoing (and renewed) resistance to the inclusion of LGBTIQ people. An overview of research on resistance to the inclusion of LGBTIQ people within foster care services and sports and resistance to the inclusion of certain LGBTIQ people (e.g., LGBTIQ refugees, disabled LGBTIQ people) within services is also provided. The chapter highlights the importance of both equity and liberatory practices in the removal of barriers to inclusion.

Confederate naval building during the US Civil War (1861–1865) was a form of “self-strengthening” that had much in common with similar efforts across the Pacific World in the 1860s and 1870s. To overcome structural limitations (a lack of industrial capacity or existing warships), Confederate navy builders relied on foreign acquisitions and local innovations such as the torpedo to compete with the materially superior United States. The US Civil War was, in this sense, a vast practical experiment for small or industrially weak states confronting North Atlantic power. Beginning in the 1860s, the template set by the Confederacy – local adaptation with cheap asymmetric weapons and the overseas acquisition of qualitatively advanced systems – found numerous adopters in Pacific newly made navies. Reciprocally, many industrial producers in Europe were stimulated by demand from the Confederacy to produce novel weapons for Pacific states.

Median nerve innervates 12 muscles and the tips of 3½ fingers. On its way to the hand, it passes through the carpal tunnel at the wrist. It is commonly injured in desk workers due to compression, producing inflammation and resulting in damage found in carpal tunnel syndrome. One commonly utilized test for carpal tunnel syndrome and thus median nerve impingement is the reproduction of pain with Phalen’s test, which is performed by forward flexing the wrist and pressing the dorsal aspects of the hands together.

Four themes characterize the role of the Pacific’s newly made navies in the making of the US “New Navy.” Demand for new and surplus technology accelerated innovation. Testing and battlefield observation of novel weapons helped refine decisions about acquisitions and strategy. Threat perceptions of ascendant newly made navies in the Pacific made manifest the immediate need for a US New Navy. And, finally, threat perceptions were instrumentalized as political capital in order to sell the utility of navalism to a skeptical public. Appreciating these relationships textures accounts of the emergence of the US empire in the Pacific, the study of military history in the context of international society, and the advent of prototypically “modern” navies. In this the history of the nineteenth-century Pacific is a useful primer for competition in the region between the People’s Republic of China and the United States.

This chapter situates the field of LGBTIQ psychology in relationship to broader global and political contexts. An overview of the socio-legal status of same-gender sexualities and trans internationally (e.g., criminalisation of LGBTIQ people; marriage equality) is provided. The impact of global socio-political frameworks, specifically neoliberalism and right-wing extremism, on LGBTIQ people is evaluated. Terminology in the field of LGBTIQ psychology and the merits of different variations on language are also discussed.

Explanation and interpretation are two core theoretical scientific activities, and this chapter suggests a way of conceptualizing them and of normatively appraising them within the premises of a comparative approach. There are many distinct activities taking place in the scientific process, but explanation is widely considered as the core theoretical activity since it is an epistemic activity in which representation and inferential reasoning are merged in a complex way in order to enlighten natural, biological and social phenomena. However, there is another core theoretical activity directed towards other goals that is equally complex: interpretation. This is the activity that deals with meaningful material. The importance of interpretation is standardly stressed in the humanities, but there is no reason to assume that this epistemic activity should be normatively appraised according to different standards than explanation. It is indeed the claim of this chapter that there is no dichotomy of science and humanities at the methodological level and that the same normative approach can be successfully applied to both areas, notwithstanding a series of important differences.

The tibial nerve is a branch of the sciatic nerve. It branches off superior to the popliteal fossa, and descends toward the leg anterior to reach the calf muscles. It makes a sharp turn after passing the ankle, traveling through the tarsal tunnel along with the posterior tibial artery and vein (red and blue). Primary motor function of the tibial nerve includes plantar flexion, toe flexion, and inversion at the ankle.

This chapter introduces wireline communication, focusing on introducing key terminology, such as eye diagrams, intersymbol interference, noise, bit-error ratio, pulse response, non-return-to-zero modulation, pulse-amplitude modulation. The similarities and differences between electrical and optical links are discussed. Exemplary transceiver block diagrams are presented.

The L5 nerve root is the lowest lumbar nerve root that exits between the L5 and S1 vertebrae. It is the most common root implicated in lower extremity radiculopathy. Because of the posterior longitudinal ligament, herniated discs most often protrude posterolaterally where they commonly compress nerve roots exiting through the intervertebral foramina.

This chapter presents a variety of other types of numbers including how infinity may be incorporated into the real or complex numbers, the quaternions, transfinite ordinals and cardinals, and p-adic numbers.

From the statistics of solar radio bursts, we learn that we can discriminate between three diagnostic regimes: (i) the incoherent regime where the radio burst flux is essentially proportional to the flare volume (with a power law slope of ), as it occurs for gyroemission, gyroresonance emission, gyrosynchrotron emission; (ii) the coherent regime that implies a nonlinear scaling between the radio flux and the flare volume ; as it occurs for the electron beam instability, the loss-cone instability, or maser emission; and (iii) the exponential regime that does not display a power law function, but rather an exponential cutoff as expected for random noise distributions. Thus, the power law slopes offer a useful diagnostic to verify the flux–volume scaling law and to discriminate between coherent and incoherent radio emission processes, as well as to distinguish between SOC processes and non-SOC processes. An additional diagnostic comes from the inertial range of power law fits: SOC-related power law size distributions should extend over multiple decades, while power law ranges of less than one decade are most likely not related to SOC processes.