Chapter 20 covers issues relating to the licensing of patents in the context of technical standard setting. It briefly summarizes the development of standards-development organizations (SDOs) and their policies regarding patents on standards. It then addresses the issue of determining fair, reasonable and nondiscriminatory royalty rates, which are required by many SDO patent policies. It also covers patent disclosure requirements under SDO policies (Qualcomm v. Broadcom) and the contours of the nondiscrimination prong of FRAND. Next it addresses the effect of a FRAND commitment on the ability of parties to seek injunctive relief (Apple v. Motorola), and then the effect of the transfer of an underlying patent on the FRAND commitment made by its prior owner.

I argue for a new operationalization of attention as a process of information selection that is endogenous, rather than exogenous, to decision-makers’ goals and constraints. Traditional accounts postulate that attention is captured in a “bottom-up” fashion by external sensory stimuli or in a “top-down” fashion by external experimental instructions. In contrast, recent studies of information-demand provide a powerful alternative view whereby attention is allocated endogenously to serve a decision-maker’s goals, and is subject to the decision-maker’s knowledge, biases, and constraints. I review neurophysiological evidence supporting this view, with a focus on optimal and potentially suboptimal forms of attention allocation aimed to reduce uncertainty and enhance reward gains.

This chapter summarises the main themes of the book and illustrates the methods discussed through applications to texts around the coronavirus pandemic. The issues of corpus-building, using quantitative and qualitative techniques, and ‘being useful’ are illustrated from this perspective.

Ideology is a central concept in political psychology. Here, we synthesise the scholarly debate's major themes. We first examine the ways in which ideology has been operationalised and discuss its prevalence (or lack thereof) in the mass public. This is followed by a discussion of the top-down and bottom-up forces that shape citizens' ideology. Top-down processes include political elites and socialisation. Bottom-up processes range from political values, basic human values, and personality to biology and genetics. Finally, we outline steps that we would welcome in the next generation of research on political ideology. These include fundamental questions about the causal relationship between different bottom-up factors and a call for more attention to measurement of key constructs and of open science practices in the study of political ideology. We hope this chapter inspires others and sets the stage for the next generation of research on political ideology.

During Argentina’s 2001–02 crisis, new political groupings were created. Most of them were derived from preexisting parties and most failed to survive much beyond that juncture. The Republican Proposal (PRO) is one of the rare cases of successful party building. From a small group centered around an entrepreneur, it was built up with political newcomers from the business world and NGOs and with long-standing politicians – radicals, Peronists – from the traditional Right. Its success marked a break with the historical weakness of center-right parties in Argentina. However, due to the conditions of its emergence and the strategy carried out by its leaders, PRO is more rooted in some parts of the country than in others. In the City of Buenos Aires, its stronghold, and in certain other provinces, it behaves like a fully functioning political party, while in other districts it would be better defined as a diminished subtype, specifically an unrooted party. This chapter focuses on the PRO’s centralized horizontal coordination strategy and the impact of this strategy on the party’s uneven rootedness throughout the country. In this way, the case of the PRO helps elucidate the subnational variations of the theoretical model proposed in this volume.

How do aid agencies deliver protection and assistance in Uganda’s Kyaka II, and specifically seek to prevent and overcome gender-based violence? In what ways do they affect the women and men living there? Focusing on these questions, the chapter explores the overall camp structures and scope of aid via the humanitarian apparatus, power practices, and decision-making—as well as their effects on the refugees living in Kyaka II. Divided into four parts, the first addresses developments and aid in the camp alongside hierarchies, and argues that refugees are made ‘protection objects.’ The second part centers on projects tackling gender-based violence, and their links with global refugee policies. It reveals how preventive and protective projects against gender-based violence as well as those to support empowerment essentially draw on ‘vulnerability’ categorizations, which portray women primarily as ‘vulnerable protection objects.’ The third part addresses correlations between aid, the camp architecture, and the prevalence of gender-based violence, revealing the three issues of aid workers at times perpetrating violence, the structural effects of aid, and the risks resulting from the camp landscape. Before concluding, the fourth part considers whether the broad critique of aid provision and of the camp is reasonable in light of the challenges that aid agencies themselves face.

The purpose of this essay is to address the four organizing questions of the workshop. First, I discuss my own neoclassical realist staged theory of peacemaking, which incorporates other various subparadigms of realist thought, including balance of threat and hegemonic peace theories.My model is premised on the idea thatpeacemaking must begin as a top-down venture for the reasons realists and rationalists suggest, but that after a peace treaty or its equivalent is achieved, stable peace requires the treaty to be socialized using mechanisms derived from liberal and constructivist mechanisms. Second, I compare my paradigmatic model to other peacebuilding paradigms, emphasizing the ways in which atop-down approach to interstate peacemaking is derived from realist and rationalist theories of international politics and explain how it compares to the leading alternative approach, which is a bottom-up approach derived from liberal and constructivist theories. I address the implications my hybrid model has for the quest for a “positive” peace.Finally, I address the obstacles to peace and the policy recommendations that flow from my model.

The common kestrel is evaluated as Least Concern at global level. However, at the European level, the species is considered of conservation concern due to a continuous moderate decline since the 1980s due to agriculture intensification, landscape simplification, pesticide use and loss of nesting sites. Moreover, the conservation status of some subspecies of common kestrel appears problematic. This chapter discusses the conservation status of kestrel species and subspecies, and the main top-down and bottom-up factors that affect the viability and stability of their populations. It also points out the strong limitations of our knowledge about the density-dependent and independent processes that regulate the demography and dynamics of kestrel populations. Important conservation-related topics, such as urbanisation, pesticides, or use of artificial nest boxes, have been discussed in detail in prior chapters.

Our main theoretical contribution is the concept of the ‘global governed’, which we discuss as an umbrella concept for existing literatures on post-development, post-humanitarianism and post-protection. We also contribute ‘post-protection’, an analytical lens for critically engaging with the risks of protection as a form of top-down governance, and a means to recognise alternative forms of refugee-led social protection. This chapter presents these concepts and applies them to examine refugee-led social protection in East Africa. The ‘global governed’ enables us to ontologically focus on the collective action of refugees themselves, and the ways in which they mobilise to provide social protection. ‘Post-protection’ offers a heuristic framework through which to critically examine the interaction between top-down international institutions and bottom-up refugee community organisations (RCOs). Our main empirical question is: what explains variation in the scale and scope of refugee-led social protection? We seek to critically re-examine the provider-beneficiary relationship that characterises a range of policy fields, grounding our concepts in literatures that are fundamentally about the role of power in global governance. Our theoretical contributions critique the ‘global’ while rendering visible the ‘local’, highlighting hidden power relations and unquestioned institutional assumptions, while reasserting the subjectivity and agency of the marginalised.

The existence of the self with its own causal powers is an unpopular idea in philosophy of mind and cognitive science. Yet, I find that attention provides evidence of such a self. In this chapter I argue that attention provides room for a particular understanding of the self that aligns with nonreductive materialism, against physicalism. As I discuss, attention provides experiential evidence, as when it seems to us that we effortfully direct our attention; it provides behavioral evidence, as when we identify the difference between endogenous and exogenous attention in others; and it provides neural evidence, as when top-down attention is distinguished from bottom-up attention on the basis of scale. The best way of understanding this evidence, I argue, is that a subject, understood as macro-scale patterns of brain activity, directs attention. One might interpret this through "weak emergence," but I argue in favor of a stronger emergence, known as "contextual emergence": the subject emerges from neural activity in the context of being associated with a body that engages with a world. This subject-centered account is unique among philosophers and better fits the available evidence.

The chapter starts with the changing roles of the faculty as well as the Dean/President in a fast, flexible, networked setting, with outsourcing and a slimmer core. This network reality is seen as key to cope effectively with contextual macro shifts, especially when it comes to implementing key curricular change. The Dean/President is seen as critical here, in the sense that he/she represents a “top-down” dimension, which might not only be key when it comes to driving key changes, but also for effective faculty mentoring and for quality assurance. This top-down orchestrator role is likely to become even more central in the business schools of the future. The choice of new Dean/President is thus becoming even more critical, discussed at the end of the chapter.

While constant change characterises ecology, subtidal ecologists seem set to take a deep dive in to the biological processes that accelerate and compensate for environmental change. Similar to the technological and collaborative progress that benefited the present generation of authors, continuing progress may assist future generations of subtidal ecologists to figure out why kelp forests are characterised by global mosaics of long-term loss, gain and stasis. Where and how might kelp decline or flourish or simply persist future ocean change? Our review takes a biogeographic perspective to synthesise ecological patterns and the processes that create them. On this basis, we consider the modification of ecological processes by oceans undergoing physical and chemical change and, as a result, consider their future ecology. We find that future oceans will make life beyond the capacity of kelp to exist on many coasts, but not all coasts will be beyond the capacity of a kelp’s life. Consequently, this review provides a sign post for future research into the future decline or persistence or even increase of kelp forests.

The north-eastern Pacific rocky intertidal has become widely recognised as a natural laboratory for experimental ecologists and as a platform for more observationally focussed ecologists seeking to understand macroecological and biogeographical patterns. In this chapter, we focus on a couple of broad topics that are central to our current understanding of fundamental ecological, evolutionary and conservation topics that have benefited from north-eastern Pacific rocky intertidal case studies. The first half of the chapter deals with recent work on the biotic and abiotic factors influencing patterns of range wide abundance and distribution of species, and how such patterns are being affected by human impacts. The second half reviews the latest research on the role of direct (e.g., size-selective harvesting) and indirect human impacts (e.g., climate change, disease) on top-down (e.g., predator/prey dynamics) and bottom-up (e.g., upwelling dynamics) control of rocky intertidal community structure and functioning. Many of the case studies presented in this chapter are a result of decades of monitoring efforts throughout the region; highlighting the utility of long time series data for understanding the temporal variability of ecological interactions and species’ abundance and distribution patterns, while providing baseline data to predict future changes.

This chapter addresses a special category of cases in which an asserted patent is, or has been declared to be, essential to the implementation of a collaboratively developed voluntary consensus standard, and the holder of that patent has agreed to license it to implementers of the standard on terms that are fair, reasonable, and nondiscriminatory (FRAND).This chapter explores how the existence of such a FRAND commitment may affect a patent holder’s entitlement to monetary damages and injunctive relief. In addition to issues of patent law, remedies law, and contracts law, we consider the effect of competition law on this issue.