This chapter is an enquiry into whether we can predict whether a particular instance of variation at the syntactic level may reflect social stratification or not (Labov 1966, 1972, 1994). Therefore, a range of syntactic variables in Dutch has been examined that may reveal social correlations in the spontaneous speech of 67 speakers who were born, grew up, and still live in one particular locality. Most of the syntactic variables consist of variants associated with the local dialect and (codified) standard Dutch. The syntactic variables examined differ in frequency of occurrence, synonymy/functional equivalence, abstract properties, and presumably noticeability. The fact that the social stratification of various syntactic variables can be investigated by following the same speakers within one speech style, i.e. the sociolinguistic interview,L12 offers a unique opportunity to carefully discriminate the effects of similar socio-demographic factors on different types of syntactic variables. The overall result is that social stratification of syntactic variation can be predicted where syntax maps onto discourse. The outcome is dependent on the extent of duration of language contact situations, and interactions in which particular linguistic variables have become socially meaningful depending on the individual and the wider societal, political and ideological context.

This chapter considers the role corrective feedback plays in second language vocabulary acquisition. The first half of the chapter considers the effects of oral corrective feedback. We first provide a classification of oral corrective feedback, and then discuss findings from existing descriptive and experimental studies, followed by pedagogical implications of the findings. Past studies have suggested that vocabulary tends to benefit more from oral corrective feedback than grammar or morphosyntax, possibly due to the high degree of noticeability and less complex abstract nature of vocabulary. The latter half of the chapter discusses the effects of written corrective feedback. After providing a classification of written corrective feedback, we present two major research frameworks: feedback-for-accuracy and feedback-for-acquisition. The chapter then presents results of experimental studies, followed by pedagogical implications of the findings. Existing studies have suggested that written corrective feedback may lead to more appropriate use of vocabulary in subsequent revisions; however, it is not yet clear whether these positive effects can be carried over to a new piece of writing. The chapter concludes with suggestions for further research and calls for more research comparing the effects of different types of corrective feedback, both oral and written, on vocabulary learning.