The goal of affective neuroscience research is to integrate as many measures as possible when attempting to gauge affective experience. This chapter examines the value of objective and subjective measures used in affective neuroscience. It presents examples that showcase the use of the response indices, illustrating how objective and subjective measures operate uniquely and offer opportunities to investigate the properties of emotion from different vantage points. The chapter addresses some limitations to measurement and comments on work that is pushing research forward by combining measures with inventive methods. Future research that investigates deeply experiential aspects of the human emotional life will benefit from employing a network of measures to provide a more in-depth understanding of the neurophenomenology of emotion. The challenge before affective neuroscientists is to include and integrate multiple indices from both subjective and objective categories of measurement to best capture the mental and neural bases of emotional life.

This chapter clarifies the nature and semantic properties of metacognition in non-humans. As is the case for every philosophical inquiry concerning animal minds, studying animal metacognition should provide new perspectives on the structure of mental content and on mental activity in general. This exploration proceeds in four steps. First, the experimental evidence for animal metacognition is presented and the difficulties of a metarepresentational view on metacognition summarized. Second, the possibility of alternative, non-propositional semantic structures is discussed. Third, a specific representational format that might be sufficient for animal metacognition to develop is examined. Finally, some objections are addressed, and further developments of the proposal are considered. The question of whether human metacognition uses a separate feature-placing format, or is absorbed within the propositional mode of thinking, is still open, and current research may soon come up with interesting new constraints.