The mainland clouded leopard Neofelis nebulosa is categorized as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List and considered at high risk of extinction in the wild. Despite this, knowledge of its ecology and population status remains limited. We investigated the population density, habitat utilization and spatial and temporal ecology of the clouded leopard in Manas National Park, north-east India. We deployed camera traps across the forested habitats of Manas for 11,388 trap-nights, resulting in images of 12 clouded leopard individuals. The estimated population density was 1.73 individuals per 100 km2 and the relative abundance index was 0.18 per 100 trap-nights. The availability of small prey species and primary forests influenced clouded leopard habitat use significantly, highlighting the potential conservation importance of species such as hares, gallinaceous birds, porcupines and primates. We observed a high degree of temporal overlap (> 0.70), with distinct activity peaks, between clouded leopards and sympatric carnivores. We observed no spatial co-occurrence pattern between clouded leopards and sympatric carnivores. This study contributes to our understanding of the mainland clouded leopard population and its behavioural ecology in Manas National Park.

Capture-mark-recapture (CMR) repeated at intervals is a commonly used method of population estimation of mammals. Most guidelines for the use of wild mammals recommend adequate measures to ensure a captured animal has food and water available, as needed, until it is released. Small mammals are often highlighted as needing special care, but recommendations are either less clear or absent for medium- and large-sized mammals. We therefore examined the short-term welfare implications of CMR trapping of medium-sized mammals, using the marsupial, brushtail possum (Trichosurus vulpecula) as a case study. Possums were caught in cage traps baited with circa 30 g of food and set for three consecutive days at monthly intervals. Timing devices on the traps measured when traps were sprung. Possums were confined in traps for, on average, 89% of each night they were trapped, plus a further 2-6 h between sunrise and the actual time of release from the traps. They lost 3-8% of their bodyweight on average, depending on the number of captures in a trapping session. A recently developed framework for humaneness assessment, based on five welfare domains, gave an overall welfare impact of mild-moderate for cage trapping of possums. The short-term solutions to these welfare impacts would be, at a minimum, to provide trapped possums with adequate additional food and water, and minimise their time spent in the traps. Guidelines for the use of wild animals in research and management could also be more prescriptive regarding the provision of food and water in studies of medium-sized mammals that involve repeated capture.