A recurrent concern in the archaeological study of early Islam is the degree to which the physical record exhibits significant continuity with the centuries prior to 1/622. This chapter first summarises the earliest evidence for a distinctive Muslim identity in the archaeological record. The Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem marks a watershed in Islamic material culture, as among other things, it also provides evidence of a new sense of artistic ambition among the Muslim elite. Next, the chapter assesses changes in the countryside with particular emphasis on the elite country residences (qusur) of Greater Syria and the evolution of complex irrigation systems in different parts of the Islamic world. Then, it discusses the changes in the urban environment from the Late Antique period to the creation of new cities in Syria and Iraq during the early Abbasid caliphate. Finally, the chapter addresses changes in international trade from the Late Antique period to around 390/1000.