Social and personality psychologists have conducted surveys and experiments online for nearly twenty-five years. Researchers have used the Internet to ask questions about a wide range of topics, including racial bias, personality development, and attitude change. The frequency of conducting internet research has increased over time and understanding how to conduct online research has become a critical skill for psychologists. This chapter provides a general introduction to conducting survey and experimental research online. We outline how researchers can host and program internet studies, as well as their options for recruiting participant samples. We also cover important issues that researchers should consider about data quality, representativeness, generalizability, and upholding ethical standards. Throughout the chapter we discuss practices and guidelines that we view as optimal at the current time, and direct readers to additional literature that can further inform their thinking.

This chapter discusses the use of virtual approaches to data collection in qualitative research in the age of Covid-19. Covid-19, also known as SARS-CoV-2, came to public attention on December 1, 2019, and was declared a pandemic by the World Health Organization on March 11, 2020. Due to safety considerations, Covid-19 necessitated the move from in-person approaches to virtual approaches for qualitative researchers, most of whom likely lack specific training and knowledge on Internet-mediated approaches with data collection. To provide background information and perspective on virtual interviewing, the chapter offers a primer by overviewing virtual interviewing, examining researcher and participant perspectives, and offering best-practice considerations when managing the technical aspects, participant engagement, and ethical considerations of virtual interviewing.

Behaviour can be recorded in either the laboratory or the field. In either setting, it can be recorded using standardised behavioural tests that elicit specific behaviour, or by observing freely-behaving subjects. Observation requires decisions about which subjects to observe (sampling rules) and how to record their behaviour (recording rules). There are four sampling rules: ad libitum sampling, focal sampling, scan sampling and behaviour sampling. There are two basic types of recording rule: continuous recording and time sampling; the latter can be further divided into instantaneous sampling and one–zero sampling. Continuous recording is more demanding for the observer but is the only recording method that produces true frequencies and durations. Estimates of frequencies and durations derived from time sampling will be more accurate if the sample interval is short relative to the mean duration of the behaviour. One–zero sampling is likely to yield biased estimates of frequency and duration.