The coffee berry borer, Hypothenemus hampei (Ferrari), can survive in residual coffee berries during the inter-harvest period, while new fructification only appears 2–3 months after the last harvest. The dispersal of colonizing females is an adaptation that enables the life cycle of the species to go ahead whenever his flight aptitude allows. This paper focuses on accurately determining the rate of inseminated females ready to reproduce when emerging from residuals berries to colonize new ones, which constitutes a characteristic of the live cycle far from common in Curculionidae. We dissected females caught in traps baited with a mixture of alcohols during the inter-harvest season, females from infested residual berries collected from branches, and virgin females obtained from pupae reared individually in the laboratory. After microscopic preparation with Giemsa stain, spermathecae were observed to identify the physiological status of each specimen. Out of the females found in the traps, 98.4% displayed recent and abundant insemination and 1.6% sporadic insemination. In contrast, in residual berries, most of females were recently inseminated (84.5%), followed by virgin females (10.5%) and older inseminated females (5%). In addition, the flight tests of the virgin females were negative. These results indicate that all colonizing females were inseminated, ready for flying and oviposition, females inside residual berries showed different physiological status, and virgin females could not migrate since they could not flight. The large number of inseminated females inside the residual berries, and the capacity of migrating females to colonize and reproduce, suggest that it is necessary to control residual berries and use traps to stop the dispersal and reproduction of this pest.

The coffee berry borer (CBB), Hypothenemus hampei (Ferrari), is a multivoltine species closely associated with coffee crops worldwide, causing severe damage to the bean. In Mexico, as in all tropical regions, CBB survives during the inter-harvest period in residual berries on the ground or in dry berries remaining on the branches, and then disperses in search of the first suitable berries. In this study, we investigated how CBB dispersed from the first infested nodes during the fruiting period of Coffea canephora Pierre, which provides a favourable trophic level for this insect. Forty-five branches equally distributed in 15 coffee trees, with one infested node and four uninfested nodes, were selected. The branches were subjected to three treatments over nine weeks: 1) glue between nodes with full protection, 2) glue between nodes without protection, and 3) no glue and no protection. In addition, 45 CBB-free branches were selected and subjected to the same three treatments. CBB colonization can occur in three ways: 1) from an infested node to an uninfested node on the same branch, 2) from infested berries to uninfested berries within the nodes, 3) from branches to other branches. We also found that CBB dispersal between nodes of the same branches never occurred by walking but by flying. Thus, in this context of coffee berry development and ripening, and unlike the phenological situation of the inter-harvest period, CBB continuously travels very short distances, thus limiting its control.

The host location behaviour of two closely related bethylid parasitoids was investigated under laboratory conditions. Although both species of parasitoid attack the coffee berry borer (CBB) Hypothenemus hampei Ferrari, they differ in their diet breadth. In Y-tube olfactometer bioassays, we investigated the behavioural responses of Cephalonomia stephanoderis (Betrem), a parasitoid with a narrower diet breadth, and Cephalonomia hyalinipennis (Ashmead), a parasitoid with a wider diet breadth, to the coffee–CBB complex volatiles. The results revealed that the responses differed for the two species. In single- and dual-choice tests, C. stephanoderis was attracted to volatiles emitted by CBB-infested coffee berries, dust/frass and CBB immature stages, whereas C. hyalinipennis was not attracted to any cues from plant–host complex offered.

The potential of the eulophid parasitoid Phymastichus coffea LaSalle to control coffee berry borer Hypothenemus hampei (Ferrari) populations under field conditions in Colombia was evaluated. Parasitoid adults were released one, five and nine days after artificial infestations of 90-, 150- and 210-day-old coffee berries with H. hampei females. The position of the beetle inside the berry and the parasitism levels were assessed ten days after each P. coffea release. Parasitism of H. hampei by P. coffea was significantly affected by the age of the berries at the time of infestation, and by the position of the beetle inside the berries. Highest levels of parasitism were recorded in 150-day-old berries (75–85%) and in 90-day-old berries (75%) when P. coffea were released one day after the artificial infestation with H. hampei. In 150-day-old berries, highest levels of parasitism were recorded for H. hampei found in the outer layer of the endosperm followed by beetles penetrating the exocarp. Increasing the time of P. coffea releases after the artificial infestations with H. hampei led to decreased levels of parasitism in beetles attacking 90- and 150-day-old coffee berries. Low levels of parasitism were recorded in H. hampei females infesting older coffee berries because most of the beetles had already constructed galleries deep in the endosperm of the berries, i.e. out of reach of the parasitoid. The potential of P. coffea for biological control of coffee berry borer in Colombia is discussed.

The composition and preparation of an artificial diet for the coffee berry borer, Hypothenemus hampei is described. Ten generations were obtained without any significant change in fecundity. Development at 25°C on this diet was similar to previously reported work using coffee berries. One female reared on this diet lived for 380 days. This diet will permit investigations into the genetics of insecticide resistance, potential biopesticides and other research, requiring a convenient laboratory rearing system.

The coffee berry borer, Hypothenemus hampei, which originates from Africa, is one of the most serious pests of commercial coffee and is now present in most of the major coffee growing parts of the world. Quite recently, this beetle spread into Mexico and Ecuador and is now causing serious economic losses in these two countries. In 1985, a classical biological control programme was started to control the pest using the bethylid, Prorops nasuta and other hymenopterous natural enemies from Africa. During the programme, various studies were conducted in Kenya on P. nasuta and H. hampei including their field distribution and life history. A technique of rearing and screening P. nasuta against plant diseases was developed and several shipments have now been made to Ecuador and Mexico. In 1988 a continuous laboratory culture of P. nasuta had been established in Ecuador and the wasp was also reported to be reproducing in sleeves cages in the field.

Between 1979 and 1982, H. hampei spread itself from a small area in the lowlands of central Jamaica, to the entire coffee growing region (alt. 15–1603 m) of the island. The levels of infestations in the 390 farms surveyed ranged from less than 5–100%; in plains it was about 45% but only about 3.4% at altitudes of over 1000 m. On a parish basis the infestation ranged from 2.8 to 19.17% (mean 9.45%) in June 1982, before the spraying with thiodan EC35 began.

In November 1982, 8 weeks after the last spray of the three-spray cycle, the infestation levels ranged between 1 and 20.21% (mean 9.56%). In fact, it had increased from about 6.7% in 1979 to 9.56% in 1982, despite the multi-million dollar spraying programme over 4 years. The shortcomings of the chemical control strategy are discussed and an integrated approach involving chemical and cultural practices is advocated.

No insect parasite or predator of H. hampei were found in Jamaica; the fungus Beauvaria bassiana was however, found to have inflicted 6–40% mortality in the adult borer.

The persistence of 34 formulations in the green (G) and red (R) berries of C. arabica var. typica, infested with female adult H. hampei were assayed by a dip-technique. The 3-day LC50 values in G and R (figures in parentheses) berries for thiodan EC 35 were 0.00284 (0.00327), and the relative ratio of values for other formulations were: perfekthion 1.2 (2.1) > carbicron 1.6 (2.3) > basudin 3.5 (3.2) > actellic 4.0 (3.6) > decis 4.1 (3.7) > thiodan EC 3 4.2 (4.2) > bidrin 5.8 (5.0) > malathion 5.8 (5.1) > lindane 5.8 (5.6) > ciodrin 5.9 (5.6) > folimat 6.0 (6.0) > belmark 6.2 (6.3) > aldicarb 8.0 (9.7) > nexion 11.0 (12.0)>kelthane 13.5 (15.4) > tiovel 14.6 (16.3) > dursban 15.6 (22.0) > chlordane 17.8 (23.8) > methomyl 21.5 (24.3) > aldrin 25.1 (24.9) > supona 27.2 (26.5) > dimilin 29.0 (27.5) > methoxychlor 31.7 (92.2) > chlorfenvinphos 35.8 (92.5) > dieldrin 41.2 (93.8) > phosdrin 65.0 (94.7)>sevin 104.2 (118.0)> nexagan 106.4 (121.9) > bimarit 196.4 (301.7) > azodrin 271.2 (410.4) > fenitrothion 448.3 (417.0) > chlorpyrifos 448.8 (614.3) > gardona 514.6 (703.1), -fold more than the thiodan EC 35 values.

The 7-day LC50 values for 29 formulations were ca 10–82% less than those of the 3-day values; the decrease in the values for leading formulations being thiodan EC 35 13.4 (8.3), perfekthion 6.5 (39.9), carbicron 12.4 (10.6), thiodan EC 324.3 (16.4), malathion 35.2 (25.7), lindane 82.1 (76.9) and tiovel 59.6 (67). The values for the 17 least toxic formulations (except dimilin and bimarit) showed ca 27–88% decrease during the last 4 days of observations.

Twenty-three insecticide formulations were bioassayed for toxicity against the eggs and larvae of H. hampei in maturing and ripe berries of C. arabica L. Var. typica. The infested berries were dipped in different concentrations of individual formulations, dissected 24 hr later for recording larval mortality and transferring the eggs to wet filter papers where larval hatching was recorded for the next 4 days. The order of toxicity and LC50 (% a.i. × 103) values for the eggs in maturing and ripe (figures in parenthesis) berries were: thiodan EC 35, 5.1 (6.2) > perfekthion, 5.9 (8.1) > decis, 7.2 (9.4) > carbicron, 7.3 (9.8) > actellic, 10.6(12.9) > thiodan EC 3, 14.7 (17.4); > folimat > aldicarb > dursban > tiovel > supona > dimilin > methomyl > kelthane > phosdrin > sevin > methoxychlor > dieldrin > azordrin > fenitrothion > bimarit > chlorpyrifos > gardona, 39.7−1043.7 (44.3−2642.2). The order of toxicity remained almost the same for the larvae, the LC50 values being 2.1−12.7 (2.9−21.8) for the top six and 14.8−1920.4 (47.1−2738.6) for the remaining 17 formulations. Generally, the formulations were 1.1−2.7-fold more toxic to larvae than to eggs infesting the maturing berries but 0.47−3.57 more toxic to eggs than larvae in the ripe berries.

The LC50 values (% active ingredient in parentheses) for 34 formulations of 29 insecticides, obtained by dipping green berries (GWB) infested with adult Hypothenemus hampei, were: thiodan EC 35 (0.0003) > perfekthion (0.0004) > carbicron (0.00044) > decis (0.0005) > actellic (0.0008) > basudin (0.0009) > belmark and ciodrin (0.0012) > thiodan EC 3 (0.0013) > malathion (0.0014) > folimat and bidrin (0.002) > aldicarb and lindane (0.003) > nexion > tiovel EC 3 > dursban (0.0046–0.006) > supona > methomyl > kelthane (0.011–0.012) > chlordane > aldrin > dimilin > chlorfenvinphos > phosdrin > sevin > methoxychlor > dieldrin (0.016–0.025) > nexagan (0.034) > azodrin (0.04) > fenitrothion (0.07) > bimarit (0.14) > chlorpyrifos (0.39) > gardona (0.96).

The order of toxicity remained the same for borers in the pulp (GP) or endosperm (GE) of green berries or endosperm of red (RE) berries, though the LC50 of each formulation of the same or different insecticides varied significantly. The respective LC50 values for the four leading, and the rest of the formulations were about 7−21- and 2−6-fold higher in GWB than GP, 9−23 and 2−5-fold higher in GE than GP, 1−2.3- and 1−3-fold higher in RE than GE, and 12−25- and 3−37-fold higher in RE than GWB. The practical significance of the results is discussed.