Some of the upheavals, such as the Eurasian outbreak of Black Death of the fourteenth century and the introduction of Old World diseases to the Americas in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, had such broad historical consequences that they seem to stand categorically outside of earlier human experience. The common cold was almost certainly among the first of the Old World viruses to infect individuals in the Caribbean. Beginning in the middle of the seventeenth century, a second wave of infections from the Old World crossed the Atlantic and opened a new chapter in the global integration of infectious disease such as falciparum malaria and yellow fever. The third wave of infections from seventeenth century into middle of the nineteenth century is bubonic plague confined for centuries to the expanses of Eurasia, breaking out periodically. In Northern Africa and Eurasia, the disease burden was substantially different, because many of the tropical diseases could not be transmitted in other ecological zones.