Translated texts preserved on stone, papyrus, leather, and ostraca (pieces of broken pot) in Egyptian and Aramaic illustrate dependence and slavery from the Late Period of pharaonic Egypt, which included over a century of Persian rule. Despite army garrisons and immigrant officials, many earlier Egyptian practices continued. At the same time, under the Persians immigrants brought in practices of slavery from their homeland and, alongside their purchase and sale, the marking of slaves with their owners’ names became well-documented. The terminology of slavery and dependence in both Egyptian and Aramaic texts, new sources for the acquisition of slaves, the relationship of names to ethnicity, and ways in which slaves could gain their freedom are all topics raised in this chapter, as finally is the difficult question of discerning the experience of being a slave.

Shifting to an examination of identity formation from below, Chapter 4 observes popular culture through music and opens a discussion on the nature of Iranian identity. Music is not only a cultural expression; in Iran it has also been used as a political tool and as part of resistance movements. Iranians voiced their allegiance with the revolution and their identity as Shiite Muslims through song-like protest chants and musical tracks. Protest chants and group singing heighten the meaning of words and help facilitate a sense of unity. These techniques were employed as an emotive force during the revolution and by later generations to proclaim their identity and as a form of resistance after the controversial election of 2009. The Green Movement is a pertinent example of how popular music is utilized by Iranians as a mode of expression. Consequently, popular music can be used as a tool for investigation in order to facilitate a better understanding of contemporary Iranian identity and society.