This chapter presents a new, annotated translation of the prose Anaplous Bosporou (Upstream Voyage on the Bosporos) by one Dionysios of Byzantion, written around the middle of the 2nd century AD. As the chapter introduction shows, this striking prose work is ‘perhaps the most detailed description of a landscape to have survived from the ancient world’, and expresses Dionysios’ admiration for his homeland. It also preserves a host of invaluable topographical details along both shores of the Thracian Bosporos and in the Golden Horn (especially the locations of sacred places), as well as information about fisheries. A new, detailed map shows many of the localities mentioned, with an inset showing the area immediately around Byzantion in more detail.

This chapter presents a revised, annotated translation of the Periplous (Circumnavigation) erroneously attributed to Skylax of Karyanda (Chapter 2 of this volume) but most likely written in 338–335 BC (conceivably by Dikaiarchos of Messana, Chapter 9), together with selected testimonia and fragments arranged as seven extracts. The translation reflects recent improvements to the Greek text. The chapter introduction characterizes the author’s conception of continental divisions and of the inhabited world as a sequence of ethnic regions. His focus on coastal topography, baldly enumerated, may reflect the aim of calculating the ‘length’ of each continent. This idiosyncratic work may have been intended for circulation only within Aristotle’s Peripatos (Lyceum); its impact seems to have been limited, other than perhaps upon Dikaiarchos and the late antique Euxine (Chapter 36). A new map summarizes the author’s clockwise ‘progress’ round the Mediterranean and Black Sea, while a second shows the key points in his portrayal of Greece and the Aegean.

This chapter presents new, annotated translations of various surviving works by Markianos of Herakleia, who is probably the man of that name who lectured at Constantinople just before and just after AD 400. The chapter introduction shows that it is to him that we owe one of the two collections of geographical works that survive from antiquity (perhaps built on foundations laid by Menippos); its sole surviving copy, though incomplete, includes several works translated in the present volume. The main work presented here is the partly extant abridgement of Markianos’ Circumnavigation of the Outer Ocean, dealing first (book 1) with the lands from eastern Africa to western China, and then (book 2) with the coasts of the northern Atlantic. To this are appended over 40 citations of Markianos by Stephanos of Byzantion and others, as well as the theoretical opening sections of Markianos’ epitome (précis) of Menippos (the whole epitome is in Chapter 21 of this volume). His perceptive preface to Ps.-Skylax is printed in Chapter 7. At many points, such as when discussing how to present distances that display systematic errors, he shows himself to be one of the most self-aware and methodologically astute of ancient writers, as well as exceptionally widely read. New maps explain his presentation of the Far East and northern Europe.

This chapter presents new, annotated translations of the principal testimonia and fragments of Aristeas of Prokonnesos (archaic period), arranged as six extracts. His lost Arimaspeia, in three books of epic hexameters, told of his journey beyond the Black Sea in the company of Apollo and, some said, in the form of a bird or a disembodied soul. It took him to the Issedones, who told of peoples beyond them: the dangerous, one-eyed Arimaspoi, at war with gold-guarding griffins; the unreachable Hyperboreans, prominent in the mythical geography of the Greeks. The detailed chapter introduction examines Aristeas’ grounding in the Greek experience of the Black Sea, his wider importance across the colonial Greek world, including the far west, and his relationship to Pythagoreanism and Orphism in those parts. Scepticism about Aristeas developed much later; but he is best viewed as a respectable aristocrat from a respected polis (city-state).

This chapter presents a new, annotated translation of the anonymous, but substantial, Hypotypōsis (Outline) of Geography which, like the shorter outline by Agathemeros (Chapter 29 of this volume), was probably written as a new preface to Arrian’s collection of geographical works; it is thought to date from the last third of the 6th century AD and may be by the same author as the Circumnavigation of the Euxine (Chapter 36). The author begins with general principles about the Earth and the continents, before surveying the regions of the oikoumene (inhabited portion of the Earth) systematically, then the ‘gulfs’ of the outer Ocean. After a discussion of the wind rose, the dimensions of the principal seas are given, followed by the climatic zones and details of Lake Maiotis (the Sea of Azov). The chapter introduction shows that the text represents an expansion and update of Agathemeros, incorporating a Ptolemaic understanding of the world.

This chapter presents new, annotated translations of testimonia and fragments of Hekataios of Miletos (late 6th–early 5th century BC), selected with a focus on geographical material and arranged as 111 extracts. The chapter introduction situates him within the context of the ‘Ionian Renaissance’, and identifies a determination to systematize the world and its place in the cosmos, as well as to rectify the mistakes of one’s predecessors. Characteristic of his two books is an interest in inland areas, not just coasts, and in a wide span of Europe and Asia–apparently based on personal observations–as well as a response to Homeric geography. His depth of coverage, as well as the choice of a clockwise ‘tour’ beginning in the western Mediterranean, were influential upon his successors.

This chapter presents new, annotated translations of the geographical testimonia and fragments of Mnaseas (active c.225–c.200 BC), arranged as 53 extracts. The chapter introduction reviews the evidence for his origin (Patara rather than Patrai) and date, and the structure of his geography (at least three books on Europe, followed by at least two on Asia and probably more than one on Africa or ‘Libye’). His work is characterized by a lively interest in mythology, including unique versions of some myths, to which he may have applied a rationalizing approach. The relative frequency with which he is cited suggests that his reputation was high.

This chapter presents a new, annotated translation of the famous treatise Airs, Waters, and Places (c. late 5th century BC), attributed, perhaps incorrectly, to the medical writer Hippokrates of Kos. The treatise sets out a model of how environment and seasonal conditions promote specific physiological conditions in the human body, and assesses the relationship between nature and custom as determinants of the physiology, ethical character, and social organization of Asian peoples, focusing on a comparison between European and Asian Skythians. A final passage identifies the greater variability among Europeans. The chapter introduction suggests a nuanced view of the controversial closing pages of the work: the author does not consistently regard Europeans as superior, but–perhaps under the influence of Athenian power–emphasizes the importance of understanding political systems.

This chapter presents new, annotated translations of a geographically focused selection from the fragmentary writings of Eratosthenes of Kyrene (c.280–c.200 BC), arranged as 127 extracts. (Translations of passages from Strabo are adapted with permission from the work of D. W. Roller.) The chapter introduction emphasizes that the modern reception of Eratosthenes gives too much prominence to his measurement of the circumference of the Earth. Insofar as we can rely on the testimony of Strabo, our main source, a more important feature of his geographical work (which was only one part of a massive scientific and literary output) was the further elaboration of his predecessors’ notions of latitude and longitude. This he combined with descriptions of regions across the whole inhabited portion of the Earth, but based on topographical divisions rather than ethnic communities. A new map shows the key points in his division of western Asia into topographical units.

This chapter presents new, annotated translations relating to Menippos of Pergamon (active c.26/5 BC), comprising part of the surviving portion of the epitome (précis) made by Markianos (Chapter 34 of this volume) together with nine further testimonia and fragments. The chapter introduction reviews Menippos’ known Circumnavigation, which seems to have begun in the Black Sea and proceeded, untypically, anti-clockwise round the Mediterranean; his legacy in the work of Agathemeros (Chapter 29) and possibly Arrian (Chapter 27) and the Stadiasmos (Chapter 31); and our probable debt to him for first assembling the corpus of geographical texts which Markianos expanded.

This chapter presents new, annotated translations of the geographical testimonia and fragments of Eudoxos of Knidos (391/0–338/7 BC), arranged as 79 extracts. The chapter introduction identifies Eudoxos’ multiple areas of expertise and suggests that his original contribution lay particularly in the area of Earth measurement, including what may have been a novel concept of a central parallel of latitude for the inhabited portion of the globe. He did not follow Hekataios’ clockwise organization of material, and knew more about the eastern Mediterranean and adjacent lands than about other regions. Like Hekataios, however, he shows a lively interest in many aspects of human societies and history; he was perhaps aware of Airs, Waters, and Places (Chapter 5 of this volume). His text survived down to Byzantine times and was highly influential.

This chapter presents a revised, annotated translation of Arrian’s published version of his report to the emperor Hadrian (written around AD 131–5, when his consulship was long past) about his tour of duty in the Black Sea, when he led a squadron of ships from Trapezous round the east end of the sea as far as Dioskourias-Sebastopolis. The text mentions several Roman military installations and outlines the geopolitical circumstances of particular districts, as well as listing many harbour and river mouths together with the distances between them. The southern shore of the sea is described in a ‘flashback’, while the north-western and western parts, which Arrian did not reach, are described on the basis of earlier reports. As the chapter introduction points out, the digression near the end of the work about the island of Leuke (mod. Zmiinyi), where Achilles lived after being spirited away from Troy, is thought to be a tacit tribute to Hadrian’s companion Antinoös, who had died in 130. A new map illustrates the stages of the narrative.

This chapter presents new, annotated translations of the principal testimonia and fragments of Skylax of Karyanda (late 6th century BC), arranged as fourteen extracts. Skylax, we are told by Herodotos, was recruited by King Darius of Persia to explore the Indus. The chapter introduction assesses recent studies that trace the echoes of his travel narrative in Philostratos’ Life of Apollonios (3rd century AD) and suggest that Skylax descended the Ganges to the east coast of India, perhaps voyaging as far as Taprobane (Sri Lanka). A specially drawn map indicates the area within which he most likely travelled.

This chapter presents a new, annotated translation (approximating English iambics) of the sophisticated poem, preserved in its entirety under the title Oikoumenes periegesis (Guided Tour of the Inhabited World), which was written in skilful Homeric hexameters by Dionysios of Alexandria between AD 130 and 138. The chapter introduction establishes the date of the work, which includes a tribute to Hadrian’s companion Antinoös, and its relationship to other possible works by Dionysios. Its sources may include Strabo, though it is difficult to sift Strabo’s geography from that of his sources. The poem—Hesiodic in conception, Homeric in language, with many echoes of hellenistic poets—is mostly framed in terms of west–east movement, with a north–south progression within each part of the oikoumene. It remained popular in literate society between the 4th century and the late Middle Ages, being translated into Latin twice, copied frequently, annotated intensively, and printed in Greek as early as 1512. The translation replicates the acrostics within the poem, including a fourth one newly discovered.

This chapter presents a new annotated translation (in loose English iambic pentameters) of the two surviving passages of a didactic poem by one Dionysios son of Kalliphon (early to mid-1st century BC), describing mainland Greece and the Aegean in coastal sequence. The chapter introduction evaluates the evidence for the poem’s date, the Stoic influences upon it, and its debts to Artemidoros and Apollodoros; and offers new prosopographical evidence suggesting that the poet was born into intellectual circles at Athens. The work–perhaps a private tribute to an Old Greece that was being overwhelmed by Roman power–left no discernible legacy and has excited surprisingly little scholarly interest. The translation replicates the acrostic that identifies the author’s name.

This chapter presents a new, annotated translation of the philosophical treatise Peri kosmou (often known by the Latin title De mundo), written in approximately the 1st century AD (a much-disputed date) and preserved among the works of Aristotle. The chapter introduction emphasizes the literary polish of the work, and the remarkable way in which it draws accurately upon a late hellenistic understanding of geography, the earth sciences, and cosmology in order to sustain its open-minded, but fundamentally Aristotelian and anti-Stoic, theological position and stimulate readers to immerse themselves more deeply in its philosophy.

This chapter presents new, annotated translations of the testimonia and fragments (mostly from Pliny the Elder) of various works by Augustus’ client king Juba II of Mauretania (active c.27 BC–AD 23/4), selected with a focus on geographical material. This is the first such collection of his geographical writings. The chapter introduction emphasizes his links with the former Ptolemaic dynasty through his queen, Kleopatra Selene (daughter of Mark Antony and Kleopatra VII), links which the royal couple kept up through iconography and patronage within their kingdom. Juba’s outstanding literary output can be seen as another reflection of this connexion, aimed at integrating Mauretania into the Greco-Roman cultural sphere and conferring distinction upon the kingdom. His geographical writing embodied travels and researches extending as far as Egypt and western Asia, and was based on a close appreciation of earlier writers including Agatharchides (Chapter 15 of this volume). His wide-ranging cultural and scientific interests are well represented in the extracts, particular highlights being the course of the Nile (believed to have its source within Mauretania), the fauna of the Canary Islands, and the discovery and naming of the plant family Euphorbiaceae, the spurges. A new map illustrates the range of Juba’s geographical interests, spanning the whole longitudinal range of the Roman empire south of the Mediterranean.

This chapter presents a new, annotated translation of the late 6th-century AD expansion and update of Arrian’s Euxine (Chapter 27 of this volume), probably by the same writer as the Hypotypōsis (Chapter 35). In the translation, the many passages deriving almost verbatim from Ps.-Skylax, the Nikomedean Periodos, Arrian, and Menippos are marked as such (following the practice of Diller). The introduction argues that the work merits closer attention than it has received, not least for what it tells us of population movements between the 2nd and 6th centuries. An appendix contains the late Anametresis of the Oikoumene or Perimetros of the Pontos. A new map, matching that for Arrian, includes place-names that had changed since Arrian’s time.

This chapter presents new, annotated translations of the testimonia and fragments of the geographical writings of the philosopher Dikaiarchos of Messana (late 4th BC), arranged into 15 extracts. The chapter introduction identifies his innovative focus upon physical geography. A new map illustrates Dikaiarchos’ concept of a central parallel of latitude bisecting the inhabited portion of the world; in devising this, he may have been building upon Eudoxos of Knidos (Chapter 6 of this volume). He may have pioneered the measurement of the heights of mountains using triangulation, and the use of noonday shadows to estimate the circumference of the Earth, a technique which Eratosthenes famously took further (Chapter 12) and which in effect adopts the concept of a meridian of longitude.

This chapter presents a new, annotated translation (approximating English pentameters) of the anonymous iambic poem sometimes called (without any evidence) ‘Pseudo-Skymnos’ but here ‘the Nikomedean Periodos’ (127/6–74 BC). The surviving, first part of the poem, whose ‘journey’ is arranged clockwise from the western Mediterranean, takes us a little way into the Black Sea. For the next part, dealing with the Black Sea, we have 38 fragments, all but one of which are from the Pseudo-Arrianic Circumnavigation of the Black Sea (Chapter 36 of this volume). Of the remainder we have no trace. The chapter introduction revisits the controversy about the identity of the poem’s author: possibly Apollodoros of Athens, though that suggestion is less secure than has been thought (despite the claimed reading of Apollodoros’ name in a damaged passage of the manuscript); possibly the otherwise unknown Pausanias of Damascus (if he existed). The poem, dedicated to a king Nikomedes of Bithynia, displays the influence of Ephoros and Eratosthenes, as well as responding to Homer. Though innovative, the work had little influence (though the late antique Euxine, Chapter 36 below, repeatedly quotes from it) but remains an important source for scholars investigating Greek colonial foundations in the West. A new map indicates the ‘route’ followed in the poem.