This chapter aims to define the limits of religious toleration of the Eastern Orthodox Church in those areas of Europe which remained outside of direct Ottoman or Muscovite rule in the early modern period. The rudimentary confessional balance that had obtained between the Eastern and the Latin Churches in the kingdom of Poland, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, the Transylvanian principality and the kingdom of Hungary was disturbed by the arrival of Protestantism in the second quarter of the sixteenth century. The growing numerical strength and political influence of Evangelical nobles and burgesses necessitated the introduction of toleration as a state policy. When it was set in place, however, the politically emasculated believers of the Eastern Church were either effectively excluded from, or found themselves on the bottom rung of a tiered system of, official toleration. The survival of Orthodox privilege in Moldavia and Wallachia, and the full religious toleration granted by the Habsburgs to the South Slav peoples in exchange for their support in defending the imperial frontiers from the Ottomans, underscore the significance of political authority and instruments of violence in the hands of local élites for the preservation of traditional Orthodox identity.

Despite being inundated with publications on the subject historians today feel less confident than ever that they truly understand the Reformation. The prevalence of national paradigms, such as ‘confessionalisation’ in German Reformation studies and ‘revisionism’ in English Reformation studies, encourages scholars to focus their attention on local circumstances and on specific individuals in those localities without due attention to the bigger picture. The sheer volume of case-studies being generated risks the loss of an overall perspective, and threatens to obscure the magnitude and significance of the Reformation as a European phenomenon of the first order. It is critically important to appreciate the continental scale of the Reformation because it reflected the scale and severity of the crisis of authority that beset the Catholic Church during the half-century or so following Fr Martin Luther’s announcement of the sola scriptura principle. That crisis cannot be explained by reference to local circumstances only. It went to the very heart of the institution, and it posed an existential threat to the Catholic Church. Reformation historians have yet to explain convincingly why Luther’s challenge resonated with such devastating effects across the continent. This collection of essays reflects the impact of the Reformation across Europe and offers explanations of its impact.

The need for a new approach to peace isself-evident. A novel perspective that can go beyond systemic understanding of the behavior of human communities is required to offer new insight into the workings of peace and the outbreak of war. The Islamic gnostic outlook does exactly that. Without any claims to the political leadership of human communities and bereft of ideology and dogmatism, the mysticinquiry on war and peace turns its attention from the structural trademark of systemic approaches to the agency of the most fundamental unit, the individual. It ascertains that the roots of all good and evil are found within ourselves; we hold the key to understandingthe defects of our outward social and political behavior. In this essay, Idescribe Islamic mysticism and discuss its importance for peace and peace processes. I next discuss mysticism and the idea of self-negation, and I comparemysticism’s notion of peace with the concept of peace embodied in several theoretical schools. Iexamine the rather dismal prospect for peace engendered by Western paradigms and demonstrate how Islamic mysticism holds greater promise for achieving positive peace.