We evaluate the performance of the PLC CSMA/CA protocol by analysis, simulations and testbed measurements. We explain the impact of each parameter on performance and the motivation behind the design choices for PLC. Both throughput and short-term fairness are discussed and modelled. Short-term fairness is achieved when all users share equally the medium over a short time horizon. If short-term fairness is not guaranteed, there exists high delay-deviation that harms certain delay-sensitive ap- plications. We provide fundamental evidence about performance trade- offs of the PLC CSMA/CA. Our study suggests that PLC parameters should be judiciously selected in order to exploit the tradeoff between throughput and fairness and to achieve high QoS for best-effort and delay-sensitive applications. This chapter also presents a cross-layer PHY/MAC evaluation of contending links and investigates the challenges of stations with different rates and hidden terminals.

The importance of coalescence for efficient application of extraction and reaction engineering involving liquid–liquid mixtures is reviewed, with an emphasis on the role of intensification techniques for improvement. Discussion of gravity settling is used as a starting point, which then extends into the role of solid surfaces, such as fibers, in promoting coalescence. The physical mechanisms which control interactions between drops that then lead to coalescence are then reviewed. These include collision frequency, interfacial drainage, the role of van der Waals forces, and dynamic changes in drop geometry. A brief introduction to population balance modeling for prediction of coalescence rates is presented. The application of electrostatics to intensification of coalescence is analyzed, with a short summary of the controlling relationships. Recent developments in the application of surfactants and electrolytes for the enhancement of coalescence are also reviewed, together with an overview of controlling equations. Other intensification techniques that are briefly reviewed include the application of ultrasonic fields, phase-inversion techniques, and the use of membranes.