This chapter introduces our stress response system and how it works in the sprints of life. Under the best of circumstances and when we are in the pink of health, our stress response system functions like a finely conducted orchestra, and we hardly notice what a marvel of orchestration we live by. Herbert Benson’s studies in the 1970’s of the physiology of transcendental meditation paved the way for the Mind Body Institute and others to practice approaches retraining dysregulated stress responses. A discussion of the distinguishing features of our stress response system leads the concept of allostasis or the cumulative burden of stressors across a lifetime—a measure of the wear and tear of life.

Chapter 7 broadens the discussion by exploring pragmatics and emotion from an evolutionary perspective (see Cornell and Wharton 2021). We suggest that in modern-day humans, two systems of processing and communication co-exist: one evolutionarily ancient and to which affective effects are more closely related, the other evolutionarily more recent, and in which conceptual, propositional processes - and cognitive effects - tend to dominate. We illustrate how two such systems work with reference to an underexplored paper by Paul Grice in which he outlines his ‘creature-construction’ thought experiment. One of the main claims of this book is that in focusing exclusively on propositional inference, the low, fast route has been ignored. The existence of these two routes might shed light on how the emotional vigilance presented in Dezecache et al. (2013) may make use of both the specialised inferential and coding-decoding mechanisms and may even represent a precursor to those strategies that underlie epistemic vigilance.

Suicide is a complex public health problem driven by a multitude of biopsychosocial factors and is the result of gene–environment interactions. Psychosocial variables like chronic stress and trauma have biologic ramifications and can contribute to various forms of pathophysiology, dysregulation, and degradation, represented by allostatic load (AL). AL is the wear and tear that stress exerts on the body, and it has been associated with mental health problems and suicide. Fortunately, there are pharmacological and non-pharmacological interventions that may be effective at reducing AL and reversing its effects. Incorporating AL into efforts to promote early risk identification, prevention, and treatment of suicide is an important consideration. Critical next steps are identifying which AL biomarkers are most malleable, which effective treatments reduce AL, and if these reductions of AL are associated with decreased suicide.

The aetiology and pathophysiology of alcohol dependence are complex, derived from genetics, parenting, peer and societal norms and rules, pharmacology and mental health comorbidity. This chapter explores some of the contributing factors that make alcohol dependence a more complex phenomenon than one merely of personal choice. It explores the various aspects of family history that contribute to the heritability of alcohol use disorders, and summarises relevant social and psychological factors. It then provides a nuanced understanding of the pharmacological rationale underpinning withdrawal and relapse prevention treatment, including an understanding of the role of GABA, glutamate and opioid systems. The chapter concludes by highlighting the ways in which patients with psychiatric disorders may be at greater risk of alcohol use disorders. In doing so, consideration is given to trauma-informed principles of care in light of the high prevalence of childhood trauma in this group.

Whether hoping to lose 10 pounds, pay off debts, or write the next great novel, the process of goal pursuit forces us to embrace the factors that move us, confront the biases that shape our thinking, overcome the obstacles that impede our actions, and adapt our lifestyles to productive routines. Yet the journey does not end as we transition from goal attainment to goal maintenance. This chapter details the way we construe maintenance to prepare ourselves for long-term success as we face new challenges and embrace new opportunities.

The biocultural benefits and risks for human growth and development are reviewed. A list of the top discoveries of growth is given and future problems for growth researchers are presented. The problems include sibling effects on height, better understanding of the dual-burden of short stature with over-fatness, the association of father’s absence with age at menarche, and the impact of climate change, uncertainty, and allostatic load on human growth.

In this chapter, we discuss the hypothesis people help to regulate each other’s bodies (for better or for worse), and this is a main mechanism through which culture wires a human brain. Cultural transmission prepares the developing brain and body to meet recurrent demands within a particular cultural context, thereby supporting the development of an internal model that is sufficiently tuned to specific environments. In this way, a human brain becomes wired to run a model of the world that will control the body in an efficient, predictive manner. Our approach provides an empirically inspired account of how a human brain becomes a cultural artifact.

The brain’s subcortical dopamine circuitry promotes approach and engagement (“go”) but is often opposed by the inhibitory control (“stop”) exerted by the prefrontal cerebral cortex. Addictive drugs effectively engage the “go” system, and the inhibitory control is often deficient in addicted individuals, a result of either heavy drug use or a pre-existing condition. Repeated activation of the “go” circuits causes neuroadaptation that lessens the euphoric drug effects, resulting in withdrawal syndrome and lingering dysphoria when drug use stops. Persistent and compulsive drug-seeking then emerges as reinforcement shifts from predominantly positive and pleasurable, to the negative reinforcement of relief from dysphoria. Drug-seeking behavior is also strengthened as dopamine activation results in conditioning of stimuli predicting drug effects. Increased glutamate activity promotes development of incentive sensitization, thought to underlie the strong response to drug-related stimuli that drive the compulsion for drug use even after the initial rewarding effect is greatly reduced – producing the “wanting, but not liking” dissociation often seen in addiction.