Index

Koreen M. Reece

doi:10.1017/9781009150200.027

Index

Note: Page numbers in italics indicate illustrations or maps. The suffix n indicates a footnote.

adulthood, 75–77, 159, 220–221

AIDS see HIV and AIDS

Alber, E., 178–180, 201

Alverson, H., 13, 44

Bechuanaland Protectorate, 8–9

bogadi (bridewealth)

allowing formalisation of parental marriage, 160–161

by sons on death of father, 221

kinship links, 100, 102, 160–161

Legae family discussion, 137–139

showing bogadi cattle, 158–159

bogwera (men’s initiation), 224–225see also initiation ceremonies

bojale (women’s initiation), 225, 228see also initiation ceremonies

boloi see witchcraft (boloi)

botho see personhood (botho)

Botswana

history, 7–11

income inequality, 9, 11

map, 9

poverty, 9

roads, 10–11, 48, 48

bridewealth see bogadi (bridewealth)

Cannell, F., 7, 27–28, 210

car accident

Kagiso’s death, 258–259

Motor Vehicle Authority (MVA) payment, 260–263

care (tlhokomelo)

AIDS crisis, 24, 92–93, 167–168

Canadian understanding of term, 252

cattle responsibilities, 100–102

competing claims within community, 92–93

competing claims within family, 92, 97

components, 45

concerns, 93–94

and crisis, 24, 263

family responsibilities, 117–118

personal responsibilities, 103–104see also contributions; orphan care

Carsten, J., 178–179

cattle

bridewealth (bogadi), 100, 102, 137–138, 158–159

family responsibilities, 100–102

women’s responsibilities, 101–102

cattle posts (moraka)

dispute over herdsman, 89–91, 102–104

male responsibilities, 55

weekend duties, 54–55

winter chores, 55–56

celebrations, 207, 209see also family celebrations; wilderness retreat opening ceremony

child abuse, 245–248

child circulation

aspect of daily life, 176–177

for a better life, 173–174

Bonolo’s interview, 190–192

common experience, 174

concerns, 175

contributory relationship, 179

dikgang, 179–180, 184–186, 265

exploitation, 181–182, 186

family obligations, 182–183

for household help, 181–182, 265

kin-making processes, 184, 203

and legal rights, 201–202

limited integration of non-kin, 189–190, 192–193, 265

limits and boundaries of kinship, 46, 181–182, 186–187

non-kin children (Living Outside), 188–194

perpetual, cyclical nature, 176, 183–184

reaffirmation of kin relationships, 174–175, 177–178, 186–187, 203

reasons for circulation, 173–174, 182, 184

son of Kagiso’s wife, 265

terminology, 175–177

transactional elements, 178–179see also foster care

childbirth

post-birth confinement, 148–149see also pregnancy

children

helping with chores, 56–57, 62–63

legal rights, 197–198, 201–202

tensions over after-school activities, 62–63, 85–86see also child abuse; child circulation; foster care

circumcision, 228

colonial era, 8–9, 28, 209, 225, 253

Comaroff, J. L. and J., 12–13, 56n, 62, 156–157, 158n

conjugal relationships

dikgang, 170–171

and kin relationships, 139–140

multiple partnerships, 167

passion killings, 268–269

and recognition, 142, 152, 167–169

contributions

Balete initiation ceremony, 229–230, 234

competing claims, 263

equality, 94–95

family food, 106–109

kin responsibilities, 262–263

never complete or total, 94–97

subject to dikgang, 131–132, 263

COVID-19, 274–278

arrival in Botswana, 274–275

effect on family relationships, 276

ethical issues, 275–276

injustice and inequality revealed, 276–278

quarantine ideologies, 277

treatment possibilities, 275

customary court see kgotla (customary court)

diamond industry, 9

dikgang (kgang) (conflict)

after-school activities, 62–63, 85–86

and care, 92–93, 95

child circulation, 179–180, 184–186, 265

conjugal relationships, 170–171

continuous cycle, 4, 268

definition, 14

ethical undertakings, 16–17

family celebrations, 219–220

family life, 11–12, 36–37, 270–272

family relations, 4, 11–12, 23–24, 36–37, 92, 169

family tales, 41–42

foster care, 199–202

funeral arrangements, 17, 259–261

and gender, 111–112, 141–142

government and NGO interventions, 5–6

grocery parties (motshelo), 121–122

herdsman dispute, 89–91, 102–104

house building, 45, 71–73, 261–262

initiation ceremony, 236

interpersonal conflicts, 14–15

management, 141–142

and marriage, 159–161

potential responses, 15–17

and pregnancy, 145, 147–148

risks and avoidance, 17–18

risks and living with HIV and AIDS, 31–32, 168–170

situational challenges shared by people, 14–15

types, 14–16

wilderness retreat opening ceremony, 244, 246, 249

Dithaba, fieldwork site, 33–34

Durham, D., 17, 76, 95–96, 117, 237

ethics, dikgang as ethical undertaking, 16–17see also fieldwork, ethical dilemmas; morality

Facebook, 271–272

families

access and political power, 254

celebrations as public performance, 218–220

effects of conflict and crisis, 4–5, 20, 268–269

Euro-American understanding, 250–252

foster care disruption, 47, 201, 265

humanitarian interventions, 27–28

humanitarian repositioning, 249–250

idealisation, 20–23

initiation ceremony enactment, 232–233

interdependence with morafe (tribal polity), 227, 232–233, 237

intergenerational responsibilities, 112–113, 203–204

multiplicity, 12, 243–244, 253, 267–268

mutuality of being, 22–23

NGO and government interventions, 3–4, 6–7, 26–29, 130, 211, 241–243, 247–250, 255–256

and politics, 270

recognition, 263–264

resilience, 19

social issues, 25–26

family celebrations

catalysts for conflict, 47

for family achievements, 218–219

for family negotiation, 209–210

for family successes, 209–211

public performance of kinship, 218–220

risks of dikgang, 219–220see also Legae family celebration

family relations

closeness and distance, 67

dikgang conflict issues, 4, 11–12, 23–24, 36–37, 92, 169

generational fluidity, 16

family responsibilities

care, 117–118

for family members, 117–118

intergenerational mixing, 112–113, 203–204

versus self-making, 123

farmlands (masimo), 54–56, 60

Fassin, D., 247–248

fieldwork

Dithaba, 33–34

ethical dilemmas, 37–40

with Legae family, 34–38see also research methods

food

dispute over cooking responsibilities, 106–108

family contributions, 106–109

food baskets, 125–127, 197

generational roles, 109–111

men will feed themselves, 109

Mmapula’s intervention, 109–111

Fortes, M., 21

foster care

child protection, 197–198, 201–202

dikgang among client families, 199–202

disruption of kinship, 47, 201, 265

extended family, 198–199

first removal and placement, 197–199

Foster Care Pilot Programme, 195

foster parents, 197–198, 201

Guidelines, 195–196

kgotla (customary court) proceedings, 197–198

and legal rights, 201–202

material support for foster parents, 198

tracing families, 198–200see also child circulation

funerals, risks of dikgang, 17, 259–261

gae see home (gae)

García Márquez, Gabriel, Love in the Time of Cholera, 29, 31

gender

cattle gifts, 101

cattle posts (moraka), 55

dikgang management, 111–112, 141–142

farmlands masimo, 55–56

and the home, 52

household contributions, 111–112

girls, puberty rituals, 225

go itirela see self-making (go itirela)

gossip (go seeba batho), 15, 38

government agencies

ambivalent position, 48

intervention programmes and needs, 241

and kinship practice, 211, 241–243, 249–250

range of programmes, 6–7

risks of conflict exacerbation, 5–6

wilderness retreat opening speeches, 239–240see also foster care; orphan care

grocery parties (motshelo), 118–121

dikgang, 121–122

effect on household contributions, 121–122

household goods, 120

Khumo’s party, 118–120

participants, 120–121

savings and loans, 120

history of Botswana, 7–11

HIV and AIDS

and care, 24, 92–93, 123–124, 167–168

confidentiality versus risk, 165

‘crisis of care’, 24, 92–93, 263

in Dithaba, 33–34

effect on families, 3–4, 25–26

explanations, 11

high infection rates, 7, 29–30, 46, 170, 264, 277

moment of silence, 245

NGO and government interventions, 26–27, 39–40, 81–82, 87, 127–128

official responses, 29–30

peripheral to everyday life, 30–31

personal experiences, 164–165

quarantine ideology perpetuation, 277

recognition of HIV status, 142–143, 167–169

risks and living with the disease, 31–32, 140, 166

symptom of ‘social rot’, 226

testing and treatment, 7–29, 142–143, 245

transmission and mobility, 80–81

home (gae)

backyard (segotlo), 51–52

boundaries, 84

isong (outdoor kitchen), 52, 54

Legae yard, 49–50

lelwapa (courtyard), 53

motshelo parties, 120–121

scattered yet bounded place, 45, 59, 261

weekend activities, 50–52, 54–55

house building

achievement, 72–73

charitable organisations, 74–75

construction, 70

development requirements, 69, 74

dikgang, 45, 71–73, 261–262

finance, 69–70, 75

intergenerational tensions, 71–74

Lorato’s attempt at living apart, 76–77, 77

Lorato’s plot, 68

social repercussions, 70–72

temporal dilemmas, 73–74

housing

after marriage, 70–71

residential plots, 58

humanitarian interventions

dikgang, 5–6

effect on recipients, 247–248

effects on families, 3–4, 6–7, 26–27, 130, 247–248, 267–269

families, 27–28

families as means of depoliticisation, 243

infantilisation of recipients, 248, 250

interdependence with family, 27–28, 255–256

reinforcement of difference and hierarchy, 247–248

trope of familial bonds, 247see also wilderness retreat opening ceremony

income inequality, 9, 11

initiation ceremonies, 224–238

acknowledgement and uncovering of kin networks, 229–231, 236–237

activities, 227–228

backgrounding of family, 234

bojale (women’s initiation), 225, 228

civic and personal responsibilities, 232–234, 237

dikgang, 236

discontinuation, 224–225

family contributions, 229–230, 234

family responsibilities, 234

illness of initiates, 230, 236, 236n

invisibility and secrecy, 230, 233–234

Legae sibling disinterest, 228

means of self-making, 233–234

morafe (tribal polity) regeneration, 47, 211, 226, 235–236, 254–255

move to local kgotla, 230–231, 234–235

official welcome and naming, 231–232

for political needs, 225–226

reintegration of initiates, 234–235

return home of mophato (age regiment), 230, 238

uncertainty and curiosity, 224

and witchcraft, 228, 234–235

intergenerational disputes

after-school activities, 62–63, 85–86

disciplining children, 64–65

food, 111

historical changes, 18

house building, 71–74

Legae family celebration, 222

Tefo and his mother, 61–63

intergenerational responsibilities, 108–109, 112–113, 203–204, 220–221

jealousy (lefufa), 15, 18, 141–143, 159–160

Kgafela II, 225–226

kgang see dikgang (kgang) (conflict)

Kgatla chiefs, 28

kgotla (customary court)

family disputes, 16, 38, 237

pregnancy disputes, 147–148

proverb, 224

Tswana law re-embedded within families, 235–236

Khama, Sir Seretse, 225, 244

kinship see families; family relations; family responsibilities

Klaits, F., 17, 19, 32, 44, 87, 92–93, 167–168

Lallemand, S., 176, 178

Lambek, M., 38, 270

land boards, 68–69, 74

Leach, E. R., 25

Legae family

bridewealth (bogadi) expectations, 137–139

dispute over herdsman, 89–91

Facebook, 271–272

family portraits, 171–172

lack of interest in bogwera initiation ceremony, 228, 233

relationship with ethnographer, 2–3, 34–38

response to Lorato’s house building, 71–72

shifting work patterns, 54–57

struggles after Kagiso’s death, 270–272

Legae family celebration, 223

boundaries of space and movement, 261

costs, 213–215

for Dipuo and Mmapula, 207–209

Dipuo’s failure to appreciate, 216–217

Dipuo’s public reproach, 207–208, 220–221

early discussions, 213

failure to confront Dipuo over his behaviour, 218

family debrief, 216–218

food and drink, 207, 215

lack of interest from wider family, 214

management of the guests, 215–216

New Year fireworks, 273

personal invitations, 214

preparations, 213–215

lelwapa (courtyard), 53

Lentswe II, 225–226

Livingston, J., 13n, 18, 72–73, 168

love (lorato), 18, 252

marriage, 154–163

cousin marriage, 156–157

decline, 157–158

dikgang, 159–161

and existing kin relationships, 156–158

government role, 157

and housing choices, 70–71

key aspect of personhood, 161–162

Legae children’s failure to achieve, 154, 159–160, 216–217, 220–221

Legae discussion, 137–139

low marriage rates, 139, 161

negotiations, 154–156, 158–160, 162–163

one extended event, 157

patlo advice sessions, 235n, 235–236

and recognition, 263–264

and relationship realignment, 143, 152

unsuccessful negotiations, 154–156, 159–161

masimo (farmlands), 54–56, 60

McKinnon, S., 7, 27–28, 210

men

bogwera initiation, 224–225see also initiation ceremonies

food responsibilities, 109

gerontocratic patriarchy, 221–222

month-end spending, 115

moraka (cattle post) responsibilities, 55

property acquisition on marriage, 58

self-making on marriage, 161–162

mobility

and HIV and AIDS transmission, 80–81

residential patterns, 53–54

and self-making, 56

shifting family work patterns, 54–57

sustenance of family relationships, 59–60see also child circulation

morafe see tribal polity (morafe)

moraka see cattle posts (moraka)

morality

botho (personhood), 13n, 226

dikgang, 16–17

medical confidentiality versus risk, 165

moral regeneration, 47, 226, 235–236, 254–255

of pandemics, 275–278

Motor Vehicle Authority (MVA), 260–263, 266

motshelo see grocery parties (motshelo)

non-governmental organisations (NGOs)

alternatives to family, 125–126, 247–248

ambivalent position, 48

care limitations, 125–126, 128–129

effects of interventions on families, 3–4, 6–7, 26–27, 130, 247–248, 267–269

feeding programmes, 127

food baskets, 125–127, 197

HIV and AIDS and orphan care, 39–40, 81–82, 125–128

housing finance, 75

intervention programmes and needs, 241

and kinship practice, 211, 241–243

social concerns, 25–26

and unmarried couples, 139see also humanitarian interventions

orphan care

appropriation of others’ things, 128–129

area tour, 78–80

bureaucratic and spatial boundaries, 80–83

clothes and household goods, 127–128

distance away from family gae, 83

food baskets, 125–127, 197

fragmentation of agency intervention, 85

multiplicity of projects, 81–82

NGO limitations, 125–126, 128–129

project centre design, 78, 82

social and moral needs unmet, 129–130

unexpected family members, 79see also foster care; wilderness retreats

orphans

AIDS crisis, 29

land inheritance, 68, 74–75

moment of silence, 245

refusal to contribute at home, 130

singing for money, 241

tensions over after-school activities, 85–86

passion killings, 268–269

patlo advice sessions, 235n, 235–236

personhood (botho)

conferred by marriage, 161–162

definition, 13n, 226

diverse modes, 23

independence and distance from family, 69, 261–262

and initiation, 226

and pregnancy, 152see also self-making (go itirela)

poverty, 9

pregnancy, 148–153

effect on family relationships, 150–152

effect on women’s personhood, 152

father’s responsibilities, 149–151

negotiations, 145–146

recognition, 144–148

and relationship realignment, 143, 147

as source of dikgang, 145, 147–148see also childbirth

property

basic elements, 58see also cattle posts (moraka); farmlands (masimo); house building

proverbs, 41, 49, 68, 89, 99–100, 106, 114, 137, 144, 154, 173, 181, 188, 195, 207, 213

recognition

celebrations, 218–219

conferred by marriage, 263–264

and conjugal relationships, 142, 152, 167–169

HIV status, 142–143, 167–169

pregnancy, 144–148

sociality and social risk, 140–141

source of self-knowledge, 141

research methods

fictitious conflations, 42–44

storytelling, 41–44see also fieldwork

rituals

uncertainty and curiosity, 224, 226–227see also initiation ceremonies

roads, 10–11, 48, 48

Sahlins, M., 19, 22–33, 276

savings groups (motshelo), 120

Schapera, I., 12, 28, 38, 59–60, 100, 209–210

Schneider, D., 21–22

scorn (sotlega), 15, 18, 141–143

Seboko, Mosadi, kgosikolo (paramount chief), 226, 231–232

self-making (go itirela)

Balete initiation ceremony, 233–234

and contributions, 132

definition, 13–14

and dikgang of care, 92–93

and family responsibilities, 123

house-building, 45

interdependency with government and NGOs, 254

intergenerational responsibilities, 220–221

and mobility, 56

risks of dikgang, 222

Setlhabi, K. G., 225–226, 231

Shever, E., 247

siblingship, 92, 95, 99, 150–151

social services

ethnographer’s work, 11, 39–40, 81–82

international and colonial origins, 253

orphan care, 3–4, 79, 126–127see also foster care

sociality, 56, 140–141

socio-political change, 18–20

Strathern, M., 22–23

subsistence agriculture, 9

tlhokomelo see care (tlhokomelo)

tribal polity (morafe)

diversity, 11

interdependence with the family (losika), 227, 232–233, 237

moral standards, 226

regeneration, 47, 211, 226, 235–236see also initiation ceremonies

urbanisation, 10–11

van Dijk, Rijk, 159, 222

village (motse), importance of the home, 210, 220

Wagner, R., 177–178

wedding rituals, 152–153, 158–159

Werbner, P., 225–227, 231–235, 235n

Widlok, T., 95

wilderness retreat opening ceremony

Canadian teacher’s contentious attitude, 244–246

Canadian teacher’s speech, 244–245, 248

cost, 247

dikgang, 244, 246, 249

government officials’ speeches, 239–240, 245–248

local choir, 241, 244

meal, 246

moment of silence, 245

parallels with kinship practice, 249–250

reinforcement of difference and hierarchy, 247–248, 255

wilderness retreats

Canadian student help, 239–240, 244–245

NGO/Social Services partnership, 25–26, 240

Willoughby, W. C., 225–231, 235n

witchcraft (boloi)

and car accident, 271

childbirth and children, 149

deaths, 260

initiation ceremonies, 228, 234–235

and jealousy and scorn, 15, 141–143

and kinship, 22

and people’s movements, 62

women

food responsibilities, 108–109, 111

grocery parties (motshelo), 118–121

life events, 143

patlo advice sessions, 235–236, 235n

personhood following pregnancy, 152

puberty rituals, 225

women’s initiation (bojale), 225, 228

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