Estimating precipitation to determine accumulation is challenging. We present a method that combines melt modelling and snowline tracking to determine winter glacier snow accumulation along snowlines. The method assumes that the net accumulation is zero on the transient snowlines and the maximum winter accumulation at the snowline can be calculated backwards with a temperature-index melt model. To verify the method, the accumulation model is applied for the year 2004 on Storglaciären, Sweden, for which extensive meteorological and mass-balance data are available. The measured mean snowline accumulation is 0.94 ± 0.10mw.e. for 2004. Modelled accumulation, using backward melt modelling, at the same snowlines is 0.82 ± 0.25 m w.e. The accumulation model is also compared with an often used linear regression accumulation model which yields a mean snowline accumulation of 1.02 ± 0.38 m w.e. The reduction in standard error from 0.38 m w.e. to 0.25 m w.e. shows that the backward melt modelling applied at snowlines can provide a better spatial representation of the accumulation pattern than the regression model. Importantly, the applied method requires no field measurements of accumulation during the winter and snowlines can be readily traced in remotely sensed images.

A conspicuous precursor of catastrophic ice-shelf break-up along the Antarctic Peninsula, reported widely in the literature, is the gradual increase in surface melting and consequent proliferation of supraglacial lakes and dolines. Here we present analytical and numerical solutions for the flexure stresses within an ice shelf covered by lakes and dolines, both isolated and arrayed. We conclude that surface water promotes ice-shelf instability in two ways: (1) by water-assisted crevasse penetration, as previously noted, and (2) by the inducement of strong tensile flexure stresses (exceeding background spreading stress by 10–100 times) in response to surface water mass loads and ‘hydrostatic rebound’ occurring when meltwater lakes drain.

We adapt from volcano seismology an automated method of locating icequakes with poorly defined onsets and indistinguishable seismic phases, which can be tuned to either body or surface waves. The method involves (1) the calculation of the root-mean-squared amplitudes of the filtered envelope signals, (2) a coarse-grid search to locate the hypocentres of the seismic events using their amplitudes and (3) refinement of hypocentre locations using an iteratively damped least-squares approach. First, we calibrate the adapted method by application to real data, recorded using a network of six passive seismometers, in response to surface explosions in known locations on the western margin of the Greenland ice sheet. Second, we present a seismic modelling experiment simulating rapid supraglacial lake drainage driven hydrofracture through 1 km thick ice. The test reveals horizontal and vertical location uncertainties of ∼121 m and 275 m, respectively. Since seismic emissions from glaciers and ice sheets often have complex waveforms akin to those considered here, our adapted method is likely to have widespread applicability to glaciological problems.

High-resolution seismic reflection (HRSR) data acquired over the Pesotum Bedrock Valley in central Illinois, USA, helped construct the seismic stratigraphy of a valley fill and the overlying sediments. Integrating these data with drilling and borehole geophysics allowed us to develop a seismo-stratigraphic classification for sediments on undulating and folded bedrock. Seven seismo-stratigraphic units that overlie the bedrock surface were characterized. Seismic units A and B include glacial sediments of multiple Pleistocene glaciations above the Pesotum Bedrock Valley, which completely mask the feature. Seismic units C–F, the valley fill, primarily include tills and glacial lake sediment deposited during the earliest Pleistocene glaciations and preglacial alluvium and colluvium that is draped over in situ weathered bedrock. The preservation of conformable-lying glacial and preglacial deposits and paucity of sand and gravel in the buried valley strongly indicate that little or no incision by glacial meltwaters has occurred. These observations contrast markedly with interpretations from buried valleys elsewhere in North America and northern Europe where valley fills contain significant deposits of sand and gravel in tunnel valleys. The HRSR data assisted the characterization and analysis of heterogeneous sedimentary sequences over a buried valley where existing subsurface information was limited. The extent of Pleistocene-age glacial lakes is inferred from the lateral continuity of silt and clay units.

The Ocean and Sea Ice Satellite Application Facility (OSISAF) of the European Organisation for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites (EUMETSAT) distributes satellite observations operationally. In this paper, we describe the development of a combined optimal interpolation and nudging (COIN) scheme in the Norwegian Meteorological Institute that assimilates OSISAF sea-ice concentration (SIC) into a coupled sea-ice–ocean Regional Ocean Modeling System (ROMS). The scheme modifies the modeled SIC at every time-step, based on the difference between observation and forecast as well as on the ratio of observation error to model error. Snow and sea-ice thickness are diagnostically modified to match the ice concentration field. Hindcast experiments of Arctic sea ice are performed for the whole of 2009. The results are compared with OSISAF and Advanced Microwave Scanning Radiometer for Earth Observing System (AMSR-E) SIC, showing a significant improvement in the analyzed sea-ice edge and summer SIC.

A large set of ice ablation data from a glacier in the French Alps is used to investigate the sensitivity of ice melting to solar radiation and temperature. The data come from 7 years of observations on a small network of 16 stakes set up on Glacier de Saint-Sorlin. The high spatial variability of ice ablation is shown to be strongly dependent on potential solar radiation. On the other hand, temporal variations are highly correlated with air temperatures measured both at a nearby and at a remote meteorological station, but poorly correlated with incoming shortwave radiation measured at an automatic weather station located close to the glacier terminus. Spatial variations of ice ablation therefore appear to be mainly driven by potential solar radiation, while temporal variations are driven by temperature. This result suggests that minimizing the influence of temperature in an enhanced temperature-index melt model may compromise the model’s ability to simulate interannual changes in melt. These new results may help to improve the calibration, and thus the performance, of these empirical melt models used for long-term simulations of glacier mass balances.

The electrical properties of water ice impact the study of diverse frozen environments, in particular the radar sounding of ice masses. The high-frequency response of meteoric polar ice depends partly on the bulk concentration of ammonium (NH4+), but the nature of this response has been unclear. Here we use broadband dielectric spectroscopy to investigate the electrical response of laboratory-frozen solutions. By analyzing the relaxation frequency of these samples and its temperature dependence, we show that the mobility of Bjerrum D-defects formed in the ice lattice by ammonium is 1.4 ±0.8 x 10–9m2 V–1 s–1 at -20°C, or about an order of magnitude smaller than that of Bjerrum L-defects formed by chloride. However, co-substitution of both ions increases the ice-lattice solubility of chloride by a factor of ∼7, causing an enhanced conductivity response due to greater concentrations of Bjerrum L-defects. Thus, despite its low mobility, ammonium can also affect the high-frequency electrical response of polar ice, but its covariance with chloride must be considered.

The large-scale thickness distribution of sea ice was measured during several campaigns in the European Arctic north of Svalbard from 2007 using an airborne electromagnetic induction device. In August 2010 and April-May 2011, this was complemented by extensive on-ice work including measurements of snow thickness and freeboard. Ice thicknesses show a clear difference between the seasons, with thicker ice during spring than in summer. In spring 2011, negative freeboard and flooding were observed as a result of the extensive snow cover. We find that the characteristics of the first-year sea ice allow combining observations from different years. The ice thickness in the marginal ice zone increases with increasing latitude and increasing distance to the ice edge; however, in the inner ice pack from ∼100 km from the ice edge the thickness remains almost constant. Modal ice thickness in spring reaches 2.4 m whereas in summer it is 1.0–1.4 m. Our study provides new insight into ice thickness distributions of a typical ice cover consisting of mainly first- and second-year ice, which may become the dominant ice type in the Arctic in the future.

An interpolated bedrock topography is presented for Flask Glacier, one of the tributaries of the remnant part of the Larsen B ice shelf, Antarctic Peninsula. The ice thickness distribution is derived by combining direct but sparse measurements from airborne radio-echo soundings with indirect estimates obtained from ice-flow modelling. The ice-flow model is applied to a series of transverse profiles, and a first estimate of the bedrock is iteratively adjusted until agreement between modelled and measured surface velocities is achieved. The adjusted bedrock is then used to reinterpret the radio-echo soundings, and the recovered information used to further improve the estimate of the bedrock itself. The ice flux along the glacier center line provides an additional and independent constraint on the ice thickness. The resulting bedrock topography reveals a glacier bed situated mainly below sea level with sections having retrograde slope. The total ice volume of 120 ±15 km3 for the considered area of 215 km2 corresponds to an average ice thickness of 560 ± 70 m.

We explore a mathematical model that couples together a thermomechanically evolving subglacial channel, distributed cavity drainage, and basal sliding along a subglacial flood path fed by a jökulhlaup lake. It allows water transfer between channel and cavities and a migrating subglacial water divide or ‘seal’ to form between floods. Notably, it accounts for full coupling between the lake and subglacial drainage in terms of both discharge and pressure, unlike models that neglect the pressure coupling by imposing a known history of lake discharge at the channel inlet. This means that flood hydrographic evolution and its impact on glacier motion are consistently determined by our model. Numerical simulations for a model alpine lake yield stable limit cycles simulating repeating jökulhlaups, with the channel drawing water from the cavities at a varying rate that modulates basal sliding during each flood. A wave of fast sliding propagates down-glacier at flood initiation, followed by deceleration as the growing channel sucks water from the cavities. These behaviours cannot be correctly simulated without the full coupling. We show that the flood’s peak discharge, its initiation threshold and the magnitude of the ‘fast sliding’ wave decrease with the background water supply to the cavities.

The Makunosawa valley, Myoko, Japan, experiences frequent avalanches and is therefore ideally suited to study how meteorological elements influence avalanche activity. Since 2000, five large-scale snow avalanches with running distances >2000 m have been observed and some characteristics of these avalanches have been obtained. However, the characteristics of the snowpack in the starting zones could not be observed because they are too difficult to approach and no snow-pit observations have been carried out. We simulated the variations in the snowpack in the starting zone using the numerical snowpack model SNOWPACK with local meteorological data. The results indicate a layer of faceted crystals with low shear strength followed by rapid loading from snowfall was the cause of three avalanches in February. Conversely, no layer of faceted crystals was shown by the model before a January avalanche and we assume the sliding surface of the avalanche to be precipitation particles. The only wet-snow avalanche is attributed to a decrease in shear strength due to infiltration of meltwater and an increase in liquid water content in the boundary of two layers of different grain sizes.

Pine Island Glacier (PIG), West Antarctica, has been experiencing acceleration in its flow speed and mass loss for nearly two decades, driven in part by an increase in the delivery of relatively warm Circumpolar Deep Water (CDW). However, at present, the configuration of the sub-ice-shelf cavity and bed conditions beneath the PIG ice shelf that dictate such oceanic influences remain poorly understood. Here, we use aerogravity data and ocean bottom depths measured by an autonomous underwater vehicle (AUV) to model the bathymetry and sediment layer thickness beneath the PIG ice shelf. Results reveal that the deep basins, previously found by AUV on both landward and seaward sides of a submarine ridge, extend substantially to the north and south. The water column thickness of the basins reaches 400-550 m on the landward side of the ridge and 500-600 m on the seaward side. The sediment layer covers the whole expanse of the seabed beneath the ice shelf, and the thickness is in the range ∼200-1000 m. The thinnest sediments (<200 m) are found on the seaward slope of the submarine ridge, suggesting that erosion by advancing ice may have been concentrated in the lee of the topographic high.

The porosity of a sea-ice pressure ridge keel is an important but poorly known variable, relevant for determining the mass budget and evolution of the Arctic sea-ice cover. Determination of keel porosity from drillholes is time-intensive and only yields limited information because of their limited lateral extent. Since the porosity within a keel equals its liquid water content, surface-nuclear magnetic resonance (surface-NMR) methods can be used to estimate porosity within such features. Surface-NMR tomography measurements were made in April 2011 using seven surface coil positions across a first-year pressure ridge on landfast sea ice near Barrow, Alaska, USA. The inversion results indicate water contents of 30 ± 7% and 40 ±10% in the ridge’s shallow and deep parts, respectively. These values are much higher than those obtained from drillholes, which are ∼10% and ∼27%, respectively. In contrast to drilling, surface-NMR tomography yields average porosity values for the entire subsurface volume. However, the inversion process is sensitive to the electrical conductivity distribution; uncertain conductivity estimates limit the reliability of the inverted water contents. Nevertheless, the results suggest that ridge porosities obtained from invasive measurements such as drilling may lead to substantially overestimated sea-ice volume.

Glacier mass balance in Norway is only observed over a small portion (<15%) of the glacierized surface and only for short time periods (<10 years) for most sites. To provide a comprehensive overview of the temporal mass-balance evolution, we modeled surface mass balance for the glacierized area of mainland Norway from 1961 to 2010. The model is forced by operationally gridded daily temperature and precipitation fields which are available at 1 km horizontal resolution from 1957 until the present. The applied mass-balance model accounts for melting of snow and ice by using a distributed temperature-index approach. The precipitation input is corrected to obtain agreement between modeled and observed winter mass balance, and a melt factor and two radiation coefficients are optimized to the corresponding summer balance. The model results show positive trends of winter balance between 1961 and 2000 followed by a remarkable decrease in both summer and winter balances which resulted in an average annual balance of –0.86 ± 0.15 m w.e. a-1 between 2000 and 2010 after four decades of zero to slightly positive annual mass balances.

Temporal and spatial variations of the seasonal snow cover at 40 sites in Nordland county, Norway, since the last decade of the 19th century are examined. Nordland lies across the Arctic Circle. Annual maximum snow depths there have varied, reflecting the interaction of synoptic conditions, temperature and terrain. North/south and coastal/inland differences are evident, but common temporal trends are identified. Maximum snow depths are strongly related to the winter North Atlantic Oscillation index. Early in the 20th century, the index was positive and the associated stormy conditions resulted in a deep, prolonged snow cover. As the index declined in the 1920s, snow depths decreased sharply. Through much of the second half of the 20th century they increased as the index tended to become more positive. The start and duration of the period of continuous snow cover is influenced by the autumn NAO index. A decrease of duration around 1990 was particularly evident at low-lying stations and those in northern Nordland. The NAO has varied considerably over the past 120 years. Because of its influence, forecasting future trends of snow depth and snow-cover duration is not a simple task.

During the 19th Chinese National Antarctic Research Expedition from December 2002 to January 2003, 1085 icebergs were observed along the cruise track within the range 58–68° S in the Southern Ocean using the marine radar on the R/V Xuelong. These icebergs were located mainly in the Ross Sea, Weddell Sea and Prydz Bay with lengths ranging from 68 to 8169 m. Both power-law and Weibull functions are applied to the curve fitting of cumulative probability distribution of iceberg length in each region. The results reveal that the power-law function underestimates the measured data in the middle of the data, but overestimates them for both the smallest and largest iceberg sizes, whereas the Weibull function underestimates the measured data when iceberg length is large enough. To reduce the relative error increasing with iceberg length, the Weibull function is used only in fitting to iceberg lengths less than a threshold value of iceberg size (L t) and the power-law function is used in fitting to iceberg lengths >L t. The improved curve fits show a good correlation over the full range of the data. This clearly reveals that an upper limit of iceberg length exists in the good agreement between the Weibull function and the measured data, which is attributed to different thermodynamic effects on calving processes and subsequent modification of large and small icebergs. In addition, iceberg size in Prydz Bay increases and then decreases when approaching the Amery Ice Shelf as a result of bergy bits and growlers calved from large icebergs in front of the ice shelf.

The turbulent sensible and latent heat fluxes are important components of the surface energy balance over glaciers in the Southern Alps of New Zealand, contributing over half the energy available for ablation during large melt events. To calculate these terms confidently in glacier mass-balance models it is essential to use appropriate parameterizations for surface roughness and atmospheric stability. Eddy covariance measurements at Brewster Glacier were obtained over an ice surface to help facilitate an assessment of the calculation of the turbulent heat fluxes. The roughness length for momentum was found to be 3.6 x 10−3m, while the roughness lengths for temperature and humidity were two orders of magnitude smaller, in agreement with surface renewal theory. A Monte Carlo approach was used to assess the uncertainty in turbulent heat fluxes calculated using the bulk aerodynamic method. It was found that input-data and roughness-length uncertainty could not explain underestimates of observed sensible heat fluxes during periods with low wind speed and large temperature gradients. During these periods a katabatic wind speed maximum alters the formulation of the turbulent exchange coefficient to that typically observed in a neutral atmosphere and this has implications for glacier mass-balance sensitivity.