The Emancipation of Christian Learning in Anglican Parishes, from the ‘Lay’ Era to Another Discipleship Era without the ‘Lay’ Tag

Abstract

Discipleship is a key topic for the worldwide Anglican Church. Approaches to Christian learning have varied over the centuries. The time has come to liberate Christian formation, education, and training from the constraints of the clergy and laity dualistic narrative, where lay people are defined negatively as Christians who are not clergy, not ordained, and not qualified. Inequality of discipleship exists in this clergy/laity disposition. The laity need to be educated. The paper explores the biblical, theological, and educational background for the need to emancipate Christian learning in parishes from the ‘lay’ era, with its limitations on Christian growth, to another ‘discipleship’ era where equality of discipleship exists, like the early church prior to around 96 ce. Disciples know that they are learners and ministers and engage in Christian learning as people who are ordained through baptism-confirmation, commissioned through Holy Communion, and qualified through their Christian faith, abilities, and skills, uniquely participating in the missio dei. The implications are discussed and illustrated in three practical examples of ‘emancipatory space’: A Learning Community Approach; Theology and the People of God; and Democratizing Christian Learning. The Church is called to help people become and be disciples, not laity!

Introductory Overview

The process of emancipating is part and parcel of the history of Christian education. In each age the Church sought ‘to be faithful to both the Christian tradition and its historic situation’. ² Down the ages reform movements in Christian education resulted in a variety of emphases and methods. Approaches to Christian learning have not always been the same. ³

For example, in the 1970s Christian educators like John Westerhoff in the USA sought to de-school Christian education. They wanted to free the discipline of Christian education from a dominant schooling-instructional teaching model to emphasize a community of faith model in parishes, maintaining the view that the whole life of the congregation offered times and places in which Christian learning might occur. ⁴ ‘Catechesis is an aspect of every activity within the church.’ ⁵ This educational approach was seen to be inherent to a community of faith. ⁶

The author argues that in the 2020s the time is ripe to introduce another reform to liberate Christian education (learning and teaching) from the constraints of the dominant ‘clergy and laity’ dualistic narrative, and the hierarchical and managerial ‘lay’ concept. The term ‘lay’ is widely used in Anglican church circles: layman, laywoman, lay assistant, lay preacher, lay leader, lay member of synod, lay education, lay ministry. ⁷ Inequality among disciples exists in the clergy-laity disposition, where lay people are usually defined negatively as Christians who are not clergy, not ordained and not qualified.

The paper introduces the reform and invites Anglican Church members to release Christian education from discipleship inequity, moving towards a disposition or set of attitudes where most church members, currently called the laity, are seen to have a positive vocation and ministry in their own right within the People of God faith community. These disciples are incorporated and ordained through baptism-confirmation, commissioned through Holy Communion, and qualified by their Christian faith and abilities, uniquely participating in the missio dei. ⁸

Rather than continue with ‘the dualistic rhetoric of over-and-againstness’ clergy and laity language, a faith community needs to be seen as an ‘emancipatory space’, ⁹ where there is a basic equality of calling among all the People of God, a gathering of equals in discipleship and a shared ministry; a community of equals through baptism with a diversity of ministries of service, recognizing co-responsibility and servant leadership by all disciples. In such a faith community the term ‘disciple’ describes the church members. In the church there are ‘everyday disciples, parish leader disciples, deacon disciples, priest disciples and bishop disciples’. ¹⁰

The paper articulates the biblical, theological and educational foundations of, and explains the need for, emancipation. The implications for the formation, education and training of disciples today are described and discussed. The author no longer speaks the traditional language of the Anglican Church by using the term ‘lay’. The word ‘disciple’ is preferred.

Even though some church leaders and members ignore the clergy-laity disposition in their congregations, the ‘lay’ concept is still built into the formal life and polity of the Anglican Church and needs to be called out and discarded. Some parish members may not be concerned about the lay concept because in their ministry they are affirmed and experience equality of discipleship and partnership in ministry. Far better that the whole systemic governance of the Anglican Church be changed so that the experience of equality in ministry discipleship does not depend on the diocese or parish to which an individual happens to belong.

The Early Christian Church until about 96 ce

Scholars provide significant background information about and reflection on the life of the early Christian communities evidenced in the New Testament.

An important observation to note is that the ‘lay’ concept is not mentioned. The emphasis was on the whole people of God. ¹¹ Members of the People of God, laos Theou, were not referred to as laity (laikos) in the New Testament. Laikos is not a biblical word. ¹² Disciples in the early church communities were not called lay people. Through the ministry of Jesus people became disciples, not laity.

Hans-Ruedi Weber wrote that ‘The first known Christian usage of the term is found in a letter addressed around 96 ce by Clement of Rome to the church in Corinth’ (1 Clem. 40.5). In ch. 40, v. 5 of the letter, Clement described church order and provided the information that ‘Lay people are bound by the rules laid down for the laity’. The term for laity (laikos) gradually entered ecclesiastical language from the third and fourth century onwards ‘usually referring to what is profane, distinguishing the laity from the priests/clergy and deacons’. ¹³

Another significant observation from contemporary biblical scholarship to note about the early Christian communities, is that the ‘People of God’ is one key biblical image used to describe and understand the nature of the Christian Church: holistic, inclusive and serving. The word laos, a people, a people group is used frequently in the New Testament; 12 passages refer to a People of God, for example, Acts 15.14, 1 Pet. 2.9. The laos, the People of God includes all disciples, everyday disciples, parish leaders, deacons, priests and bishops. ¹⁴ There is a basic equality of calling among all God’s people, a gathering of equals in discipleship. The church is a ‘community of disciples’. ¹⁵

The Letter 1 Peter written c. 90 ce is about Christian identity as God’s People in Christ. It is addressed to ‘all of you’ (1 Pet. 5.5) and ‘all of you who are in Christ’ (1 Pet. 5.14). The author of the letter draws on Old Testament metaphors (Exod. 19.6, Isa. 43.20-21) to describe the church. ‘Christians are a chosen race, a royal priesthood, a holy nation, God’s own people’ and their vocation is to proclaim, ‘the mighty acts of him who called you out of darkness into his marvellous light’ (1 Pet. 2.9). Biblical commentators suggest that this verse may have derived from a baptismal context. Peter’s audience, whether of Jewish or Gentile background, as disciples, would have a ‘sense of self-worth’ in their new status through their baptismal commitment. ¹⁶ These verses add strength to the view that baptism into Christ is when disciples are appointed to their vocation. Baptism is a key benchmark of discipleship for the whole church. Disciples were encouraged to carry out their ministry, diakonia (2 Cor. 5.18; 2 Tim. 4. 5). Some disciples were appointed to a diaconal ministry (diakonia) and exercised leadership with ‘authority and responsibility’ for ‘the work of ministry’ (Eph. 4.12; Acts 1.17, 25; Acts 6.3-6). ¹⁷

Steven Ogden, drawing on the work of Elisabeth Schussler Fiorenza and others, focused on two aspects of the early church’s tradition: the concept of ekklesia and the Letter to the Galatians, 3.27-28, written c. 50 ce. ¹⁸ The Galatians passage reads: ‘As many of you as were baptised into Christ have clothed yourselves with Christ. There is no longer Jew or Greek, there is no longer slave and free, there is no longer male and female; for all of you are one in Christ Jesus.’

Ekklesia, an assembly or gathering, is a ‘discipleship of equals’. This ‘faith community is an open, inclusive, democratic space’, which God’s realm inspires. Ekklesia was a very different space with few official titles connected with leadership and authority and not dependent on ‘empire thinking and practice’. ¹⁹

Gal. 3.28 raises the issue of Christian identity and uses language from a baptismal liturgy with a focus on ‘in Christ’. ‘Unity in Christ is the basis of a new status (equality) and identity (children of God).’ ²⁰ Christ offered new perspectives on human identity and the way we see others in the liturgical and eucharistic assembly and in human society. It transcended racial, social and gender distinctions and introduced a new era, ‘a radically reshaped social world … equivalent to the “kingdom perspective” which informed Jesus’ ministry’. ‘In Christ, distinctions of race, class, and gender are irrelevant.’ ²¹ In Christ, the distinctions of clergy and laity become unnecessary and remain only as historical information which belongs to another age, to a Christendom lay era.

The People of God, laos Theou, Understanding of the Church

Around the middle of the twentieth century, the Anglican Church and other Churches emphasized the biblical understanding of the Church as the whole People of God, the laos. ²² A conversation about equality of ministry discipleship ensued. The worldwide Anglican Communion documents from the Lambeth Conferences of Bishops and the Anglican Consultative Councils of clergy and laity, 1958–98, endorsed a Whole People of God understanding of the Church. ²³ The 1968 Lambeth Conference report commented that ‘The various patterns of ministry, ordained or lay, are thus equal; we cannot rightly speak of an “inferior office” if that office is where God wants his servant to be.’ ²⁴

The Anglican Consultative Council 1996 report, Being Anglican, emphasized the ministry of the whole People of God, the laos. The report discussed the growth of that ministry and how best to equip the laos. The theology of the ministry of the whole people of God was seen as ‘the foundation of all other particular ministries of the Church’ and ‘the function of the ordained ministry is to serve, equip and enable that ministry of the baptised to take place’. The report lamented the tendency in the Church today that we start with the ordained ministry and see lay ministry as in some way derived. The report asserted that ‘the opposite is the better approach, with the ministry of the whole people of God coming first’. When we think of ministry as derived from those who are ordained ministry ‘our theology and practice can be stifled and inhibited’. ²⁵

Then in the twenty-first century the topic of discipleship and ministry resurfaced in discussions across the Anglican Communion. ‘Intentional Discipleship and Disciple-Making’ was the topic for the worldwide Anglican Communion. ‘Discipleship and the whole life of the whole people of God’ was a main theme. ²⁶ In 2020 the Church of England Faith and Order Commission published Kingdom Calling: The Vocation, Ministry, and Discipleship of the Whole People of God. ²⁷ While this aspirational and inspiring report used the term ‘lay’, Kingdom Calling emphasized that lay and ordained ministries are equal in discipleship.

The concluding four lines of the 2020 Kingdom Calling report summarize the essential message. ‘Every calling in Christ, then, is a calling towards the kingdom. It is also a calling of the kingdom: God’s reign is itself an invitation, an opening. In order to receive it, we need to lift up our eyes to see how far it extends, and the space it provides for the vocation, ministry and discipleship of the whole people of God.’ ²⁸

This holistic report sees the church serving as sign and instrument of the kingdom through the daily lives of all its members, in their living out of social and relational vocations in their life circumstances as well as through ministerial vocations of the clergy. ‘The church is located in every situation where the followers of Christ are acting in ways that point towards the kingdom and make space for it to touch and shape human lives.’ Miroslav Volf also emphasized that Christ acts through the gifts, abilities, words and actions of church members. ²⁹

The centrality of baptism for the theology of calling and vocation is affirmed in the report. The participation of all the baptized in the ministry of Christ, their different roles and responsibilities in the church as ministries are affirmed. ‘For everybody, bishops, priests, and laity together, the great sacrament of our common calling is our baptism, which signifies our glorious new life in Christ.’ ³⁰

The Church of England General Synod Document ‘God’s People Set Free: Living as Missionary Disciples in the Whole of Life, Bringing Transformation to the Church and the World’, published November 2021, is a follow-up document to Kingdom Calling. The ‘God’s People Set Free’ document affirmed ‘on the basis of baptism mutuality, the equal worth and status, complementary in gifting and vocation, mutual accountability in discipleship and equal partnership in mission of lay and ordained followers’. ³¹

Paul Lakeland, from the Roman Catholic tradition, recently discussed the concept of ‘whole-body ecclesiology’, which was used in British ecumenical conversations around 1999 on ‘conciliarity among Anglican, Methodist and United Reformed Church representatives’. ³² The concept fits well with People of God understanding of the church with its emphasis on the importance of all disciples in church polity, ministry and mission. Whole-body ecclesiology provides a faith community with an organizational structure ‘in the service of mission’. ³³ Lakeland wrote: “The beauty of whole-body ecclesiology is that it sees ecclesiology grounded in a polity that takes modern people seriously and that is appropriately adjusted to the cultural expectations of adults’. ³⁴ It does not allow lay people in a hierarchical church to be ‘infantilised in a condition of structural oppression’, ³⁵ especially where many laity are as well educated in theology and other professional qualifications as clergy and express their independence of thinking and reflect theologically. ³⁶ Whole-body ecclesiology like the whole People of God image of the church ‘allows for a greater variety of persons and opinion … and reaches out to the whole world’. ³⁷

Emancipation

Consideration of whole-body ecclesiology, the People of God understanding of the Church, the insights about the equality of discipleship ministry through baptism, and the recognition that the laity are ordained, combined with the biblical evidence from the early church prior to c. 96 ce, prompted the author to take the next step and propose changes. Such considerations serve to emancipate Christian education from the limiting ‘lay’ concept and language, and move towards assumptions, dispositions and processes which are natural to and inherent within the People of God. The discipleship ministry of most of the church membership can be defined positively, by what it is, rather than by what it is not; remembering that the 1958 Lambeth Conference stated ‘Ministry and laity are one. There may be a difference in function but there is no difference in essence.’ ³⁸ Christian learning will in the future occur within a community of equals in discipleship where there is a diversity of ministries of service, rather than in a ‘lay’ era.

During Church history members of the laity have usually been seen as Christians who were not clergy. Hendrik Kraemer wrote ‘In current usage “lay” means: unqualified to speak or judge in various fields of knowledge and science’. ³⁹ In ‘the common language of today lay/laity mean the non-specialists’, Hans-Ruedi Weber wrote. ⁴⁰ In 1958 Weber asked the question ‘who wants to be an “is not”?’ More recently others question the ‘lay’ terminology of the Church: Miley, Gaillardetz, Littleton, Benjamin and Burford. ⁴¹ Dictionaries define a lay person as a person who is non-clerical or not a member of the clergy, and a person who is without professional or special knowledge of a particular subject; ⁴² that is, unqualified and unordained.

In a negative definition lay ministry is compared with clerical ministry, rather than recognizing that ministry of all disciples is derived from the People of God understanding of the Church.

Still today, mature lay people in ministry comment that they are only a lay person. This inequality of discipleship creates an environment where church members, except for the very keen individuals and groups, feel less worthy as a lay person, let others decide the learning requirements, rely heavily on the clergy, participate and understand their ministry as complementary to the clergy. The word ‘lay’ hinders learning by suggesting that ‘lay’ is second best, not clergy, not ordained and not qualified!

Anecdotal evidence about the sometimes tentative nature of lay learning is illustrated by examples from past parish ministry. Some parishioners reported that they were put off formal learning opportunities because they had been upset during a negative learning experience in a small group or during an encounter with a priest or a parishioner. On such occasions the ideas and views of those parishioners were downplayed or rejected rather than listened to and respected. Other parishioners remarked that they took a long time to overcome their low level of confidence in their ability to express the Christian faith in word and deed. Others feared change in the church and their own faith perspective, unwilling to consider new learning in their personal faith and practice, ‘unattracted to the task of unlearning’ what they already knew even when aware of some limitations in that belief. ⁴³ Some questioned the effectiveness of a traditional sermon as a way of teaching. Others were concerned about how Sunday Worship Services often set a worshipping disciple in a passive mould with little opportunity to share faith engagement with other gathered disciples, on ethical issues encountered in daily life, family, work and community.

Parishioners also reported positive experiences of lay learning: for example, enjoyable participation in parish annual Lenten Studies and Diocesan courses on theology, and exercising ministry within the church and society. ⁴⁴ Either way, negative or positive learning experiences, the negative definition of the laity is not in itself a morale booster. Discipleship morale is energized by positivity.

After due consideration the author proposes a positive definition for 99 per cent of the People of God: ‘Everyday disciples and parish leader disciples are set apart, ordained, and commissioned, and are qualified through their Christian faith, knowledge, abilities, and skills.’ ⁴⁵ The People of God, the whole Church, all disciples are set apart. God ordains all disciples through baptism as a holy and royal priesthood to bring Christ to the world. ⁴⁶

The positive definition affirms individuals and energizes; avoids negativity, low self-esteem and counters clericalism. The greatest honour is to be a disciple of Jesus Christ, a follower of Jesus, his teachings and way, which involves lifelong learning in the knowledge, understanding and practice of ministry in the Christian faith. Learning is essential for discipleship ministry. Reflective practice motivates learning. Intentional discipleship ministry and leadership in a learning community parish enhances Christian learning. Growth in ministry progresses at the best pace and by the appropriate learning methods for each person.

Positive attitudes help to improve self-worth and confidence, generate enthusiasm, and enhance Christian learning. Positivity honours the discipleship ministry responsibilities for the majority of the members of the People of God as they serve in the name of Christ. Every individual disciple is given a fair go to make the most of their lives and talents. The clergy in their role as teachers and leading learners enable learning and facilitate growth in others rather than ‘control it’. ⁴⁷ A different approach to Christian formation, education and training in parishes emerges from such an understanding.

Disciples are on a spiritual journey with Christ individually and collectively. There will be various stages on the journey as people grow in their faith. Across the continuum there may be degrees of growing in faith: little, some, much, very much growth. But all disciples are on the journey. There is an equality among disciples. Some disciples are called to a subsequent special ordination, ordained and licensed by the bishop as deacon or priest. Other disciples are authorized as office bearers, readers or communion assistants for example. All the baptized are called to be disciples and ministers. The ministers of the Church are ‘everyday disciples, parish leader disciples, deacon disciples, priest disciples, and bishop disciples; all the baptised’. ⁴⁸

Formation, Education and Instruction/Training

John Westerhoff named three ‘intentional, interrelated and life-long processes’ involved in Catechesis or Christian learning; the challenge of making and forming ‘Christ-like communities and persons’. The three processes are: Formation, Education and Instruction/Training. ⁴⁹ Defined by Westerhoff: ‘Formation is best understood as participation in and the practice of the Christian life of faith’. ⁵⁰ It involves information, formation and transformation; a natural process of ‘enculturization’ whereby people catch and learn the Christian world view, way of life and values. Education is best understood as ‘critical reflection’ ⁵¹ on the Christian way of life and faith; theological reflection in the light of Scripture, tradition and reason. Knowledge and skills are acquired through instruction and training: Christian beliefs, Scripture, and ability to interpret it, Christian practices, discipleship ministry within the church community and in the general society, and ethics.

Dispositions influence Christian learning and teaching. The positive definition of everyday and parish leader disciples is based on a set of attitudes that affirm equality of discipleship rather than an inequality of discipleship implied in the negative definition of laity. Formation, education and training are practised within an ethos that is hospitable, safe, listening and emancipatory; where an atmosphere of equality in discipleship is created, a community of equals, ekklesia. An ‘emancipatory ethos’ ⁵² helps people move from the old lay disposition to the new discipleship disposition for Christian learning; to move from a ‘lay’ era towards a ‘discipleship’ era.

Implications

The implications of this new disposition of equality in discipleship for the formation, education and training of disciples are illustrated in the following three practical examples of ‘emancipatory space’ ⁵³ : a learning community focus for Christian education in parishes; theology and the People of God; and democratizing Christian learning.

A Learning Community Focus for Christian Education

A learning community focus for Christian education (learning and teaching) in parishes, draws attention to the issues of equity and participation in ministry discipleship.

The parishes and congregations within the Anglican Diocese of Adelaide provide the context for the author’s ministry work as a retired minister who is a learning community practitioner and researcher with an ecumenical outlook. A learning community practitioner and researcher understands that the opportunity for all learners to participate in learning is a hallmark of a learning community approach. To respect learners, pedagogy (learning principles for children and younger people) and andragogy (learning principles for adults) are practised. There is equality of access to learning. All disciples, as learners, are equipped for ministry, learning to participate and contribute. Equality of discipleship is a characteristic in a learning community in a parish context.

A learning community approach in the parish context is defined as: ‘a visionary community of faith where leaders and members, while respecting a diversity of abilities and perspectives, practise holistic, collaborative, and theologically reflective learning processes’. ⁵⁴

Findings from the author’s research project in the Anglican Diocese of Adelaide showed that a positive association existed between the enhancement of learning outcomes in terms of knowledge, understanding and practice of the Christian faith and the use of holistic, collaborative and theologically reflective learning processes. Across the spectrum of parish responses, the research revealed a moderate, positive and clear association between learning processes and learning outcomes. The combination of the three learning processes delivered positive faith learning outcomes as reported by parishioners. ⁵⁵

Another research project highlighted a learning community approach. Craig Mitchell’s key research finding from interviewing leaders from 13 Uniting Church learning community congregations throughout Australia, was that ‘the intentional (re)forming of congregational Christian formation and education is core ecclesial practice for growing mission-shaped disciples’. He defined Christian education ‘as the theory and practice of teaching, learning and formation in life-long Christian faith and discipleship, both for individuals and communities of faith’. Mitchell’s research showed ‘how congregations learn for, in and from their engagement in the mission of God’. ⁵⁶

He illustrated how reforming Christian education in congregations helped growth in Christian faith and participation in mission. As a learning community a ‘congregation is a Christian community seeking to grow in faith; not only in belief but in likeness to Christ and active discipleship’. His research found that in a learning community high value was ‘placed on the quality of community life, emphasis on the richness of learning together in community, and positive expectation and celebration of growth in faith’. ⁵⁷

These two research projects indicate that a learning community approach in a variety of parish or congregational contexts enhances growth in faith, and ‘helps people to be receptive; to enter and engage with a listening, learning and reflective disposition in a safe place’. ⁵⁸

Theology and the People of God

Anthony Maher is editor of, and an author in, Theology and the People of God: So We Pray, So We Believe, So We Live. ⁵⁹ Theology and the People of God continues in the scholarly tradition of revisiting and embracing the theology and practice of understanding the Church as the People of God. Written from the Roman Catholic perspective, the 19 Australian contributing theologians inform and update the reader in the three sections of the book, on the contemporary theological approaches to Christian practices, Christian beliefs, and Christian living. In doing so the authors support and articulate Pope Francis’s emphasis on wanting theology to engage with the ‘lived experience’ of the whole People of God. Theology is faith seeking understanding.

This focus on the biblical image of the Church as the People of God resonates strongly with the Anglican Church’s track record on the topic. ⁶⁰ Anglican documents 1958–2019, previously mentioned, endorse the whole People of God understanding of the Church.

In his two chapters Maher emphasizes that the role of theology is to serve the People of God in their theologizing, by providing quality examples and skilful guidance. The professional theologian has a role ‘in forming and informing the Church’ as a practical theologian. ⁶¹ The role of the people of God is to engage in theologizing. Maher wrote ‘Theology is the domain and responsibility of each person of God, individually and collectively’. ⁶² ‘Theology must engage the hearts and minds of the whole community, especially those living on the margins.’ ⁶³

In the doing of theology an ‘inductive method of learning’ is recommended, where ‘real life experiences become the source for theology’. Theology must ‘make sense in our kitchens’. ‘Theology of the future will be invitational, drawing the people of God into doing theology.’ ⁶⁴

The clue to inviting and enabling all disciples to do theology is found in the final Chapter 18 ‘Pastoral-Practical Theology: A Theology of Hope’ by Maher. The closing pages of the book are devoted to ‘Pastoral-Practical Theology’ (PPT) a theological reflection pastoral cycle method with a six-stage process for individuals and groups, for all disciples to use. PPT is where theology ‘bears fruit in the ministry of all the baptised’, ⁶⁵ imitating Jesus’ ministry of ‘liberating people from multifarious manifestations of material and spiritual oppression’. ‘PPT is focused on human flourishing.’ ⁶⁶

The Pastoral Cycle Method is depicted in a circle rather than linear: ‘1. Disposition; 2. Naming the reality; 3. Faith Seeking Understanding of reality; 4. Theological reflection on reality (Scripture and Tradition); 5. Shouldering the weight of reality; 6. Taking responsibility for the reality (liberative praxis).’ ⁶⁷

As Maher wrote ‘So this book, Theology and the People of God, is an invitation to the people of God to re-engage and contribute to the theological dialogue and literacy with regard the great issues of mutual concern for all humanity, including our historical and eschatological salvation’. ⁶⁸ All disciples are invited to theologize.

Democratizing Christian Learning

In Democratizing Biblical Studies: Toward an Emancipatory Space, Elisabeth Schussler Fiorenza presented arguments for changing graduate biblical education from a ‘pedagogy of domination’ and ‘an ethics of inequality’ where ‘some people are held to be more important and valuable than others’, into ‘a radical democratic space of critical enquiry’, envisioning and claiming, ‘a radical democratic ethos and pedagogical space’, ‘a profoundly egalitarian space’. ⁶⁹

In this new ‘equal-participant model’ a diversity of voices ‘speak as equals’ in a forum or seminar which ‘seeks to engender a collaborative radical democratic process of teaching and learning’; ⁷⁰ an ekklesia, an ‘assembly of equals’ who engage, explore and debate, where ‘teacher and students bring their different capabilities and knowledges to the task of creating new knowledge in a way that is critically interactive with the body of knowledge and scholarship already available’. ⁷¹

Schussler Fiorenza outlined and discussed the Theme-Centred Interaction (TCI) approach developed by Ruth C. Cohn, an approach which Schussler Fiorenza introduced into her biblical studies courses at Harvard Divinity School.

The TCI learning situation that Schussler Fiorenza recommends and uses, consists of four factors: ‘(1) the individual (the I)’ with the background and contributions they bring to ‘(2) the group (the WE)’, the group dynamics and relationships. ‘(3) The problem, the topic, theme (the IT) represents the subject and content of the training’. ‘(4) The GLOBE is the organisational environment of the training and the wider context of the participants.’ ⁷²

The process is based on respect for each person, their contribution and their self-leadership. The community experience of the whole group develops as members attend to the common relevant task (IT). ‘The goal is the dialogical integration of all four levels of speaking so that the whole group can engage in a fruitful and constructive discussion’, holding ‘all four factors in creative tension and to notice on which level the discussion moves’. ‘Only one person can speak at a time’. A moderator for the session may be needed. ⁷³ ‘The TCI approach has a radically democratic potential insofar as it insists on the fundamental equality and responsibility of the I’s that form the WE.’ ⁷⁴ In a seminar ‘all participants are equally responsible for its work and success’. ⁷⁵

Democratizing Biblical Studies concludes with personal reflections from eight participants in the TCI process. These eight voices reported positively on their experience of TCI, indicating that the process helped their self-esteem, taught them to trust their own voice, learn from others, collaborate and be a member of a learning community. ⁷⁶

Although the focus in the book Democratizing Biblical Studies is the use of TCI pedagogy for graduate biblical studies in the academic community, Fiorenza emphasized that TCI is usable in local faith communities, with the general reader of the Bible, and in public places in society where debates about the common good occur. ⁷⁷

In the past, academic and ecclesial leaders may have ‘translated’ biblical knowledge and Bible reading practices into the ‘vernacular language’ of a wider audience and the ‘common reader’, ‘who in turn is expected to appropriate and apply such knowledge to everyday life’. ⁷⁸ In the future, Fiorenza argued, ‘graduate biblical education must enable future biblical scholars, ministers and religious leaders’ to join with others, especially the excluded voices and those on the margins of life struggling for justice, to learn with them and from them, and reflect on their own assumptions as readers of the text, as well as the assumptions revealed in the biblical texts during the TCI pedagogical process. ⁷⁹ Fiorenza wrote ‘In order to democratize biblical studies, we need to constitute graduate biblical education as a forum, a “republic of many voices”, and a space of possibility where the ekklesia, the radical democratic assembly of biblical scholars, students, and the general reader, can debate and adjudicate the public and personal meanings of the Scriptures.’ ⁸⁰

In the light of Fiorenza’s emancipatory TCI pedagogical approach and her recognition that the approach also applies to the general reader and faith community members, parishes are invited to reflect on the Christian education opportunities currently offered, including Bible studies, and, if necessary, consider democratizing parish Christian learning by adopting and adapting the TCI process as a way forward. Some parishes already democratize Christian learning.

Discussion

Four common factors emerge from the consideration of the three examples presented in the paper. The Learning Community, the People of God Theology, and the Democratizing of Christian Learning approaches draw attention to four aspects in relation to the formation, education and training of disciples in parishes: the importance of each disciple being involved and engaged in learning, the importance of agency and self-leadership in learning, the importance of the partnership between theology and pedagogy in discipleship education, and parish practicalities.

Involvement and Engagement

Access to Christian learning face-to-face and online is important. Even more important is the engagement of each disciple in their own learning, as they feel comfortable and confident with a readiness to learn as ordained, commissioned and qualified disciples of Jesus Christ. The more disciples engage in their own learning in their own ways the better the enhancement of their knowledge, understanding and practice of the Christian faith.

The educational approaches mentioned in the paper emphasize involvement, participation and engagement. A Learning Community focus draws attention to the issue of equity and participation in ministry discipleship learning, where process is as important as content, and theological reflection is central. The People of God Theology invites and enables all disciples to do theology especially through a Pastoral-Practical Theology (PPT) activity.

The emancipatory Theme-Centred Interaction (TCI) pedagogical approach is based on equal respect for each person involved, their engagement in learning, contribution, and their self-leadership.

The author’s learning community research project with parishes in the Anglican Diocese of Adelaide findings highlighted the growth in faith learning of parish leaders. ⁸¹

The research findings from 45 parishes in the Adelaide Anglican Diocese, 227 participants, in 2013–14, highlighted the growth and enhancement in faith learning for parish leaders. In the quantitative surveys the group responses (from clergy and wardens) to Survey One on learning processes indicated that 76 per cent thought that being a leader was a great help (‘very much/much’) to them in learning more as a Christian disciple. In the responses to Survey Two on learning enhancement, 108 individual parish leaders reported that their participation as leaders greatly helped them (‘very much’ 33 per cent; ‘much’ 37 per cent) to learn more as Christian disciples. The focus group additional data indicated that leaders in parishes with many learning community characteristics reported much learning enhancement. ⁸²

These research findings, that being a leader in ministry enhanced faith learning, are consistent with other parish research studies on the link between participation, leadership and learning.

A 2008 Christian Research Association (CRA) study on rural churches in South Australia stated that ‘[m]any members of lay leadership teams report that they are growing in faith through their leadership’. ⁸³

A case study of pastoral leaders in ‘one ministerially active congregation’ – St Gabriel’s Catholic Parish, New Orleans, USA – focused on the ‘perceptions of those parishioners most involved in lay ministry leadership’ using interviews and open-ended surveys. Barbara Fleischer wrote: ‘Within this relational context, the primary vehicle for learning in the congregation, among twenty-six learning opportunities mentioned, was involvement in ministry praxis with others in the parish.’ The study concluded that, for both the (10) Pastoral team members and the (36) Ministry Team leaders, ‘involvement in ministry was a major pathway for their own learning, both for personal faith development and for moving towards a shared ministerial vision’. ⁸⁴

The National Church Life Survey (NCLS) team conducts research on Australian Church life and has been doing so for thirty years. ⁸⁵ An alive and growing faith (some growth, much growth) is a key indicator used by the NCLS researchers over many years, asking in the research survey ‘whether and to what extent attenders believe that their faith has grown in the past year’. ⁸⁶ NCLS identified an ‘Alive and Growing Faith’ as a ‘Core Quality’ of Church Life. NCLS researchers reported that: ‘A growing, lively faith is at the heart of church vitality.’ ‘Vital churches are churches where people feel that their faith is growing.’ ⁸⁷ A ‘growth in faith’ indicator is a measure of church vitality. Parishes where faith learning is enhanced are vital churches with members involved and engaged in ministry. ⁸⁸

The above empirical research findings indicated a link between ministry involvement, leadership and growth in faith. As all disciples, understood now to be ordained, commissioned and qualified, are recognized as self-led and ministers, much growth in faith is a likely outcome, as it was for parish leaders and ministry leaders in the research studies mentioned.

Those who involved themselves in ministry reported growth in faith. They learnt a great deal through their preparation and study, practice and discussion, reflection, and prayer; and grew in faith learning outcomes, especially in learning community, vital church and ministerially active congregational environments.

Recognition of members of the people of God as disciples without a ‘lay’ tag encourages and invites members to take advantage of their agency as ordained, commissioned and qualified Christian people; to be involved in the ministry as everyday disciples and parish leader disciples, to engage through learning approaches, which endorse equality of discipleship and full participation, by recognizing prior learning, working with their best way of learning, drawing on their knowledge, understanding and practice of the Christian faith, and offering activity options.

Disciple Agency and Self-leadership

None of us chooses when and where we are born. At birth no one chooses their gender, race or their economic or cultural circumstances. Each human being is born into a ‘structural position’, ‘within social, cultural, economic, political and religious systems by virtue of birth’. ⁸⁹ Each human being also, to varying degrees, has a ‘subject position’ or a framework of beliefs and circumstances through which he or she, as an individual, interprets life and becomes a ‘social agent’ and has agency according to their situation.

On becoming a disciple of Jesus Christ through baptism, each person joins the church community and chooses to be influenced by that ‘structural position’, the religious, social, and cultural beliefs and practices of a faith community wherever they were born and live. At the same time each disciple is a ‘social agent’ seeking to express their discipleship to the maximum potential without that potential being ‘thwarted’ by limitations within the church organization and community. ⁹⁰ The ‘lay’ issue is a limitation which hinders potential growth in faith.

While the negative lay concept has been beneficial and helped members to participate in the decision-making and governance of the Anglican Church, to study and discuss the Christian faith, and exercise a lay ministry in church and society, now is the time for the emancipation of the ‘lay’ issue. It is time to move to a positive future to maximize discipleship ministry potential in terms of the knowledge, understanding and practice of the Christian faith. Disciples of Jesus are learners and ministers. The discipline of personal growth and self-leadership in Christian learning is the responsibility of each disciple. As disciples respond to God’s love and grace in Jesus Christ through the Holy Spirit, and are freed from the ‘lay’ factor, they learn more and more.

Partnership between Theology and Education

The author writes this paper as a biblically and theologically informed Christian educator with an ecumenical outlook. Ideally, theology and Christian education are partners. Sometimes theologians and educators express their differences. Theologians may indicate that Christian educators are not theologically informed. Educators may suggest that theologians abandon their responsibilities as educators. ⁹¹ In 1980 Thomas Groome wrote: ‘We must come to view theology and Christian religious education (shared praxis) as equal partners in the vocation of the Christian community to live the faith it claims to believe and to form people in it.’ ⁹² More recently Mark Chater wrote that ‘the demarcation of expertise between theologians and educators needs to … become a dance of equal partners’. ⁹³

In Jesus Christ, Learning Teacher: Where Theology and Pedagogy Meet, Chater stated: ‘The relationship between Christology and pedagogy at the moment is unsatisfactory because one partner dominates and the other is subjugated.’ There is an imbalance between theology, Christology, and Christian education. ⁹⁴ Christology and theology dominate. Chater uses the word ‘pedagogy’ in a generic sense to include the learning of children and adults. Pedagogy and andragogy are described in the one word ‘pedagogy’. The basic message from his book is that pedagogy has much to contribute to theology; that educators and theologians can be equal partners.

For example, Chater poses questions. ‘Good teachers are also learning; in what sense can we see Jesus as a learning teacher? Can the Son of God be a learner?’ ⁹⁵ The two natures of Jesus, expressed in Christology as fully human and fully divine, come into the conversation. Fully divine might suggest that the divine man knew everything, full of divine knowledge from an early age, an authoritative and all-knowing teacher, rather than a learning teacher like other human teachers. In Chater’s work a learning teacher’s lens re-examines the Gospel texts and the figure of Jesus as teacher to reveal the fully human Christ, and to propose a process for ‘the educationalization of theology’. ⁹⁶

The term ‘educationalization of theology’ derives from the work of the late John Hull, an Australian, who lived and worked most of his life in England as a practical theologian and religious educator. In What Prevents Christian Adults from Learning? Hull argued that pedagogy could influence the way theology described the Christian faith to help it ‘become more conducive to Christian growth’. ⁹⁷

This paper applies the work of Hull and Chater by contributing to ecclesiology, the study of the Church. Using a ‘People of God ecclesiology’ the author seeks to describe church polity differently and influence ecclesial leaders from a pedagogical perspective, to educationalize church polity to help it ‘become more conducive to Christian growth’. ⁹⁸ The emancipation of Christian learning in Anglican parishes, from the ‘lay’ era to another ‘discipleship’ era, like the first-century church communities up to 96 ce, removes the ‘lay’ tag and the ‘lay’ concept, a concept which hinders growth in faith in the twenty-first century. The majority of church members will no longer be described as lay people, but as disciples. In this way ecclesiology and education are in partnership, helping people grow in their knowledge, understanding and practice of the Christian faith. Emancipation of Christian learning benefits Christian growth in faith and practice.

Parish Practicalities

Basically, to ground the new discipleship era in a parish context, the attitude of a parish leader disciple requires adjustment in practice, in an accepting environment, to recognize other disciples as co-learners who already know lots, and who will, if accepted as equals in discipleship through Christ, and recognized as being ordained, commissioned and qualified, be willing to share of themselves, reflect on the impact of their discipleship, and grow together with others in the Spirit.

Leaders learn with others rather than mainly tell others; ‘enable learning but not control it’; ⁹⁹ learning from others and from Christ when considering biblical passages for example. Some leader disciples may be further along in knowledge, skills, teaching content and growth in faith, but share that as others also share their Christian faith, wisdom, decision-making and ethical options which relate to various work, home and civic contexts. Enabling leaders help faith communities practise Christian discipleship ministry, then invite people to think about it individually and together, on the understanding that all human beings think about and reflect on their lives to a greater or lesser extent.

Parishes do not need to change the annual learning programme. Rather, look at that programme and the learning processes through different eyes, relating to others as disciples together as learners in Christ. Focus on participation, engagement in learning, listening, recognition of prior learning and experience, the agency each disciple can exercise, their self-development and finding their own voice.

Theological education for deacon and priest disciples also needs to adjust to these parish practicalities. Some theological colleges may have repositioned to the new discipleship era.

The Learning Community, People of God Theology, and Democratizing of Christian Learning and Practical approaches provide effective means for disciples to be engaged in learning, exercise their agency, and for ecclesiology and education to be reliable and consistent partners in the formation, education and training of contemporary disciples.

Conclusion

From a definition perspective, the term ‘lay’ education implies that church leaders and Christian educators are relating to people who are not ordained, not clergy and not qualified. In such circumstances Christian formation, education and training is ‘necessary’ to ensure that these ‘lay’ members of the Anglican Church know the basic knowledge, understanding and practice of the Christian faith through Jesus Christ. In this educational stance 1, lay people need to be educated, as in the important annual Lenten Studies.

From a definition perspective, ‘disciple’ education implies that church leaders and Christian educators are relating to people who are ordained, commissioned and qualified. In such circumstances Christian formation, education and training is ‘essential’ in that it is a natural or inherent aspect of discipleship ministry in parishes with a People of God understanding of the Church. ¹⁰⁰ In this educational stance 2, disciples know that they are learners and ministers. They are motived and want to learn from Christ. Growth in faith and ministry discipleship are assisted by reflective practice.

To some, these descriptions of a ‘necessary’ educational stance and an ‘essential’ educational stance may seem like a caricature. After all, a considerate and capable Christian educator these days in Australian Anglican parishes relates and listens respectfully to parishioners as disciples and adult learners, rather than behaving in a superior way of teaching and telling the uneducated laity. The author has always and still does relate collaboratively to other disciples and endorses educational stance 2. The author eschews educational stance 1, which considers members of a local parish community to be unordained and unqualified. If parish leaders identify with the second ‘essential’ educational stance, then the ‘lay’ tag is not needed. The church today is called to help people ‘become and be’ ¹⁰¹ disciples, not laity!

Emancipating Christian formation, education and training in Anglican parishes from the ‘lay’ set of assumptions towards ‘disciple’ set of assumptions is a much-needed reform. Christian learning is enhanced. Ecclesial terms used to describe various parish roles read differently in the new era: men and women disciples, parish leaders, Communion assistants, local preachers, members of Synod, discipleship education, discipleship ministry. Parishes focus on adult baptism-confirmation and ordination, Holy Communion and commissioning, discipleship ministry and mission. Practical approaches suggested in this paper broaden the horizon of alternative ways forward in Christian learning for disciples into the twenty-first century.