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The cosmic conflict: Jesus against the devil in the letter to the church in Smyrna (Rev 2:8–11)

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  01 April 2025

Bohdan Kuryliak Open the ORCID record for Bohdan Kuryliak [Opens in a new window]
Bohdan Kuryliak*
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University of Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland
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Abstract

Scholars studying cosmic conflict in the book of Revelation primarily focus on chapters 12–14, while the letters to the seven churches are often overlooked. In this article I demonstrate the presence of key elements of cosmic conflict in the letters to the seven churches, with a particular focus on the letter to the church in Smyrna (Rev 2:8–11). I identify the main facets of spiritual warfare, such as Jesus Christ versus the devil; Christians versus Jews/Romans; and victory/life versus defeat/death. I conclude that this passage contributes to the military narrative of cosmic conflict in the Apocalypse.

Keywords

cosmic conflictgood and evilRevelationseven lettersSmyrna
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Research Article
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Scottish Journal of Theology , First View , pp. 1 - 12
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Copyright © The Author(s), 2025. Published by Cambridge University Press

The theme of the cosmic conflict is found in some passages of the Bible.Footnote 1 The first Christians believed that cosmic conflict has both heavenly and earthly dimensions. In this conflict between light and darkness, spiritual (angels, spirits) and earthly (humans) forces are divided into two opposing camps.Footnote 2 In the book of Revelation, this cosmic conflict plays a key role.Footnote 3 A variety of symbols and concepts show a deadly confrontation that directly affects all the inhabitants of the earth.Footnote 4 Constant contrasts between the two sides highlight their intransigence. The battle is between the Lamb and the dragon, Michael's angels and Satan's angels, the New Jerusalem and Babylon. John contrasts the divine triad – God, Jesus and the seven spirits – with the satanic triad – the dragon, the beast from the sea and the beast from the earth.Footnote 5

The cosmic conflict motif is more evident in Revelation 12, 13, 17–18 and 20, where there is a clear confrontation between the forces of good and evil. Therefore, theologians who study the cosmic conflict tend to focus on these texts.Footnote 6 By contrast, commentators have paid little attention to Revelation 2–3.Footnote 7 I found only one study related to the letters to the seven churches.Footnote 8 Richard A. Sabuin, exploring the theme of cosmic conflict, mentions in one sentence the hostile role of Satan in the seven churches (Rev 2–3). Additionally, Sabuin devotes two paragraphs to a letter to the church of Smyrna, where he analyses Jesus’ title ‘The first and the last’ (Rev 2:8), his promise of ‘the crown of life’ (Rev 2:10) and deliverance from the second death (Rev 2:11). Since the promises are related to the salvation that the righteous will receive at the second coming of Jesus, Sabuin argues that, ‘In this picture, the title of Jesus as “the first and the last” is mentioned in the framework of a period of continuous time from the first century AD up to the coming of Jesus.’Footnote 9 However, Sabuin pays almost no attention to the seven churches, writing in passing about a letter to the church in Smyrna, and focuses only on the title ‘I am the Alpha and the Omega’ (Rev 1:8; 21:6; 22:13).

Since the topic of the cosmic conflict has not received enough consideration in scholarly discussion on Revelation 2–3, it deserves careful attention. The following questions remain relevant: (1) Is the cosmic battle imagery that is visible mainly in the central part of the book of Revelation, also present in the seven letters? (2) From which textual elements, images, terms or forms can this be seen? In this article I argue that the theme of the cosmic conflict is an important concept in the letters to the seven churches. Using the example of the letter to the church in Smyrna, I demonstrate the presence of key aspects of the opposition between good and evil.Footnote 10 The purpose of this study is to define the concept of the cosmic conflict between Jesus Christ and the devil in the letter to the church in Smyrna. I first depict the concept of cosmic conflict in the book of Revelation in general and the letters to the seven churches in particular. I then move on to a direct analysis of the message to the church in Smyrna in Revelation 2:8–11.

Cosmic conflict in the book of Revelation

The importance of the theme of the cosmic conflict in Revelation is evidenced by the fact that the presence of military vocabulary is far more common in this book than in other books of the New Testament.Footnote 11 Nine out of eighteen uses of the word πόλɛμος (‘war, fighting, conflict’) occur in Revelation.Footnote 12 Also, Revelation contains six of the seven New Testament occurrences of the verb πολɛμέω (‘to wage war, to fight, to war against’).Footnote 13 The motif of conflict is also expressed through the theme of victory.Footnote 14 Seventeen of the 28 appearances of the verb νικάω (‘to win a victory over, to conquer’) in the New Testament occur in Revelation.Footnote 15 The word indicates both moral and physical, military victory.Footnote 16 Also, the motif of the war between good and evil is seen in the symbol of the throne (θρόνος).Footnote 17 Again, 47 of the 62 appearances of this word in the New Testament are found in Revelation, where the struggle is between the Lord's throne and Satan's throne (see e.g. Rev 2:13).Footnote 18

The conflict in the book of Revelation occurs between the characters themselves, between the characters and the environment, and also in the minds of the characters regarding a choice to be on the side of good or evil.Footnote 19 Conflict is often the basis of stories, and there are two aspects to war stories in the book of Revelation: ‘First, in this kind of war story the actions of spiritual forces are as important as the actions of humans; and second, this is a cosmic battle determining the whole future of world.’Footnote 20 John also adds the theme of conflict to the hymns of praise associated with the heavenly temple service, which are found throughout the book of Revelation.Footnote 21

The military motif can be seen in many passages in the book of Revelation.Footnote 22 John presents Jesus Christ as the new David who won a great victory in a military battle over the opponents of God's people and overthrew evil through his sacrificial death (Rev 5:5–6).Footnote 23 After the fifth trumpet, locusts appear, acting like a great army in battle (Rev 9:1–11). Following the sixth trumpet, a great troop comes into view, the number of which is ‘twice ten thousand times ten thousand’ (Rev 9:16).Footnote 24 Then John writes about the beast, who went to war against the two witnesses and destroyed them (Rev 11:1–14). This war against two witnesses ‘is a result of the war in heaven’.Footnote 25 The cosmic conflict is likewise clearly visible in Revelation 12, where the dragon fights with the woman (God's people) and her child (Jesus).Footnote 26 And the war is not only on earth: Michael and his angels fight with the dragon and his angels began in heaven.Footnote 27 John shows that the earthly war is only part of the universal struggle between the devil and God.Footnote 28

The dragon continues its war against the church through the politico-religious forces of the beast from the sea (Rev 13:1–10) and the beast from the earth (Rev 13:11–18), forming a triad of evil.Footnote 29 The symbolic number 144,000 (Rev 7:3–8; 14:1–5) is the expression of the church as ‘the army of the Lamb, the messianic conqueror of evil’.Footnote 30 The war against the Lamb takes on particular tension during the outpouring of the seven bowls of God's wrath, when the triad of evil gathers everyone at Armageddon (Rev 16:12–14). For this attempt to defeat the Lamb, all the political and religious powers of the earth gather.Footnote 31 Revelation 17 contains a description of the war of ten kings with the Lamb, in which the earthly kingdoms suffer a catastrophic defeat because Jesus is ‘Lord of lords and King of kings’ (Rev 17:14).Footnote 32 Jesus returns for the second time to earth on a white horse as a mighty warrior and judge with his army (Rev 19:11–21).Footnote 33 All earthly forces of evil desperately rush into battle (Rev 19:19),Footnote 34 but the ‘King of kings and Lord of lords’ (Rev 19:16) sends his enemies to their doom (Rev 19:20–21).Footnote 35 The devil becomes a prisoner for a thousand years (Rev 20:1–3), and at the end his last attempt to conquer the New Jerusalem fails (Rev 20:7–15). John concludes the book with God's final victory over evil and the creation of a new heaven and a new earth (Rev 21–22).Footnote 36

Cosmic conflict in the letters to the seven churches

Despite the fact that scholars usually skip Revelation 2–3 when studying the theme of cosmic conflict, this theme can be traced in the letters to the seven churches. In this section I will indicate the general and main points in support of this thesis.

First, this theme is clearly illustrated by the motif of victory (νικάω), which appears in each of the seven letters (Rev 2:7, 11, 17, 26; 3:5, 12, 21 [2x]).Footnote 37 John lists many of Jesus’ promises to all who overcome the struggle: (1) the fruits of the tree of life (Rev 2:7); (2) avoiding the second death (Rev 2:11); (3) manna and a white stone with a new name (Rev 2:17); (4) power and an iron rod over the pagans (Rev 2:26); (5) white garments, the preservation of their names in the book of life and its public recognition (Rev 3:5); (6) being a pillar in the temple of God, with the name of God, Jesus and the New Jerusalem (Rev 3:12); and (7) a place on the throne of God (Rev 3:21).Footnote 38 All these promises share the theme of eternal life on a new earth without suffering or death.Footnote 39 John presents these promises to inspire the early Christians not to give up.Footnote 40 Believers must fight boldly in spiritual warfare, in which they ‘overcome by word, faithfulness, and through the sacrifice of Jesus Christ’.Footnote 41

Second, martyrdom is another aspect of the cosmic conflict. Paul Middleton notes that ‘Christians were not only athletes in the games, they were also soldiers in a cosmic war.’Footnote 42 Throughout the appeals to the seven churches, there is a call for a faithful witness (Rev 2:25, 26; 3:8, 11), which in some cases could lead to persecution and martyrdom.Footnote 43 John singles out the example of Antipas, who was killed in the dwelling place of Satan (Rev 2:13). The motif of victory (νικάω) is also associated with martyrdom. Ragnar Leivestad states, ‘The martyr is the typical conqueror, because he has demonstrated his faithfulness to the end; his victory is finally established. The living are still engaged in struggle; nobody knows how many of them will stand firm to the end. But he who has suffered death for Christ's sake has conquered.’Footnote 44

Third, the conflict is visible in the ideological war between truth and false teachings.Footnote 45 John lists the following enemies of the community and Jesus: (1) those who are evil (Rev 2:2); (2) false apostles (Rev 2:2); (3) the teachings of the Nicolaitans (Rev 2:6, 15); (4) Jews and the ‘synagogue of Satan’ (Rev 2:9; 3:9); (5) the devil and his doctrine (Rev 2:10, 13, 24); (6) ‘Balaam's’ teaching (Rev 2:14); and (7) ‘Jezebel’ (Rev 2:20).Footnote 46 John teaches that the evil forces mutilate a truth, imitate it and spread false theories. He warns Christians against apostasy from the truth, as it leads to a departure from moral principles and separates them from God.Footnote 47 On the other hand, Jesus is presented as a warrior with the sharp two-edged sword in his mouth (Rev 2:12, 16). The sword in the mouth is a symbol of the word of God, that is, the truth, which is the weapon of both Jesus and his followers against heresies.Footnote 48

Fourth, the personal dimension of the cosmic conflict is visible between holiness and immorality. John writes about the following spiritual dangers: (1) loss of their first love (Rev 2:4); (2) failing to repent (Rev 2:5, 16, 21, 22; 3:3, 19); (3) suffering and trials (Rev 2:10; 3:10); (4) compromise (Rev 2:14, 15, 20); (5) incomplete works (Rev 3:2); (6) failure of vigilance (Rev 3:3); (7) spiritual tepidity (Rev 3:15, 16); and (8) pride and nakedness (Rev 3:17, 18).Footnote 49 All these points are presented as part of the tactics of the devil and his servants, which can lead to Christian defeat in the war. Therefore, Jesus’ warning and rebuke to the seven churches are intended to strengthen and direct to the right path in order to successfully win the battles in the cosmic conflict.Footnote 50

Cosmic conflict in the letter to the church in Smyrna (Rev 2:8–11)

Although the shortest of the seven, the letter to the church in Smyrna contains a deeply developed concept of the cosmic conflict. John depicts two warring camps – the side of good, led by Jesus Christ, and the side of evil, led by Satan, opposing each other in both the spiritual and earthly dimensions.

The first aspect of the cosmic conflict in the letter to Smyrna is Jesus’ victory through death.Footnote 51 Christ declares that he ‘died and came to life’ (ἐγένɛτο νɛκρὸς καὶ ἔζησɛν, Rev 2:8). Previously spoken words ‘I died, and behold I am alive for ever and ever’ (καὶ ὁ ζῶν, καὶ ἐγɛνόμην νɛκρὸς καὶ ἰδοὺ ζῶν ɛἰμι ɛἰς τοὺς αἰῶνας τῶν αἰώνων, Rev 1:18) are repeated here.Footnote 52 John uses the participle ζῶν twice to emphasise the reality of eternal existence.Footnote 53 In Revelation 2:8 it refers to historical events: the death on the cross and the resurrection.Footnote 54 Christ's death and resurrection is ‘the turning point in the conflict between God and the forces of evil’.Footnote 55 Early Christians viewed death as the enemy of humankind (1 Cor 15:26), the weapon of the devil (Heb 2:14). But while death on the battlefield in war meant defeat and loss, the death of Jesus was a victory and triumph over the powers of evil for believers (Col 2:15; Eph 2:16), because after death came the resurrection. The Apocalypse says that Christ came to life and therefore ‘the keys of Death and Hades’ (τὰς κλɛῖς τοῦ θανάτου καὶ τοῦ ᾅδου) are in his hands (Rev 1:18). John depicts Jesus as the living argument for the rationality of following him, and the historical precedent of a victory should inspire Christians in Smyrna to faithfulness.Footnote 56 Buist Fanning notes that ‘Christ's resurrection is the guarantee that all who are his will also be raised (1 Cor 15:20–26; Phil 3:20–21).’Footnote 57

However, John not only presents the death of Jesus as an inspiring example of victory, but he sees it as having significant consequences for the personal dimension of the cosmic conflict in the lives of Christians. In the context of defeating the devil, John writes about believers that ‘they have conquered him by the blood of the Lamb and by the word of their testimony, for they loved not their lives even unto death’ (Rev 12:11). Thus, Christ's words that he ‘died and came to life’ (ἐγένɛτο νɛκρὸς καὶ ἔζησɛν, Rev 2.8) could have been a reminder to the church in Smyrna of their possibility of personal spiritual victory over the devil in the cosmic conflict.

The second aspect of the cosmic conflict, which has a local dimension specific to Smyrna, is the confrontation between Christians and Jews. John writes about ‘the blasphemy of those who say that they are Jews and are not’ (τὴν βλασφημίαν ἐκ τῶν λɛγόντων Ἰουδαίους ɛἶναι ἑαυτοὺς καὶ οὐκ ɛἰσὶν, Rev 2:9).Footnote 58 Christians living in Smyrna had problems in relations with the Jews, who slandered them (presumably to the Roman authorities).Footnote 59 Slander and denunciations were ‘weapons’.Footnote 60 Jewish blasphemy led to the persecution and suffering of God's people and eventually reached God.Footnote 61 However, according to John, Jesus does not consider them true Jews, but calls them ‘a synagogue of Satan’ (συναγωγὴ τοῦ σατανᾶ, Rev 2:9).Footnote 62 Satan's name means ‘accuser’, and he is later named ‘the accuser of our brothers, who accuses them day and night before our God’ (Rev 12:10).Footnote 63 Therefore, John presents the Jews’ accusation of Christians as the work of Satan himself. Linking Revelation 2:9 with Revelation 12:10 testifies to the general theme of the cosmic conflict that began in heaven (cf. Rev 12:7). John writes about the human dimension of this war at the church in Smyrna, where the devil, with the help of his servants, harms Christians and, through them, Jesus.Footnote 64

The third aspect of the cosmic conflict is the hostility of the local Roman authorities, which is also directed against the community of Christians. Here, too, John portrays Satan as the one behind the human power fighting against the church.Footnote 65 He quotes Jesus as saying, ‘Behold, the devil is going to throw some of you into prison, that you may be tested’ (ἰδοὺ μέλλɛι βάλλɛιν ὁ διάβολος ἐξ ὑμῶν ɛἰς φυλακὴν ἵνα πɛιρασθῆτɛ, Rev 2:10). This metaphorical language, as in the previous case with the Jews, again conveys the idea of cosmic conflict: there is a close connection between people and spiritual beings. John shows that earthly power is carrying out the devil's plan. Once again, the same idea is repeated by the author in Revelation 12, where the dragon tries to destroy a child (Messiah) (Rev 12:4) and then the woman (church) (Rev 12:13–17). The hostility of the dragon against Jesus and the early church manifested itself on a human level through the Jews and the Romans. John transfers this aspect of the cosmic conflict to the life of the Christian community in Smyrna. He reports that with the assistance of the devil, local authorities will put some Christians in prison.

The fourth aspect of the cosmic conflict relates to the contrast of courage and fear, which lead to either victory or defeat in battle.Footnote 66 John communicates Jesus Christ's appeal to the church: ‘Fear nothing you are about to suffer’ (μηδὲν φοβοῦ ἃ μέλλɛις πάσχɛιν, Rev 2:10). Christians in Smyrna received a call to be fearless. In the book of Revelation, one can see at various points the contrast between bold and cowardly Christians (Rev 2:10, 11; 21:8). It was known that fear in war leads to surrender, flight and defeat.Footnote 67 John reproduces this idea within the framework of the cosmic conflict and writes that cowards will eventually lose the spiritual battle and die the second death (Rev 21:8). However, courage was considered one of the most important traits of victorious warriors.Footnote 68 Accordingly, the promise of the Apocalypse assures that Christians who are courageous and fearless will escape the second death (Rev 2:11).Footnote 69

The fifth aspect of cosmic conflict is the motif of victory. It is expressed in two calls and promises of Jesus, which can be represented as parallelism. John places conditions at the beginning of every promise: the invocation ‘Be faithful to death’ (γίνου πιστὸς ἄχρι θανάτου, Rev 2:10) is paralleled with ‘The one who conquers’ (Ὁ νικῶν, Rev 2:11). The author of the Apocalypse equates courageous and unwavering loyalty with victory. Thus, both phrases indicate victorious triumph. Readers should have understood that conquest is a condition, the fulfilment of which leads to an eternal reward.Footnote 70 There is also a parallelism between the two rewards: ‘the crown of life’ (στέφανον τῆς ζωῆς, Rev 2:10) awaits the conqueror and he ‘will not be harmed by the second death’ (οὐ μὴ ἀδικηθῇ ἐκ τοῦ θανάτου τοῦ δɛυτέρου, Rev 2:11). In addition, there is cross-parallelism between conditions and rewards: he who died the first death will not die the second death,Footnote 71 and he who conquered will receive the crown of life. The listener's gaze is thereby turned to the coming resurrection.Footnote 72

The crown would have had many associations for the early readers of the book of Revelation.Footnote 73 Most scholars see only athletic connotations in the image of ‘the crown’.Footnote 74 Although it is true that the crown was associated with sports games, it should be noted that the crown also has a military meaning, which is often ignored.Footnote 75 Aune gives evidence of crowns as rewards for military victories among both the Greeks and the Romans.Footnote 76 Greek warriors who distinguished themselves in battle received golden wreaths.Footnote 77 The Romans followed the practice of the Greeks and developed many different types of crowns as a reward for soldiers in the army for their exploits in war.Footnote 78 Generals who were victorious in battle received a triumphal crown or laurel wreath at home. The military leaders also received noble golden wreaths from grateful people.Footnote 79 Among the Jews, too, the celebration of victory in battle was accompanied by wearing a crown.Footnote 80

In addition, military connotations are contained in the expression ‘The one who conquers’ (Ὁ νικῶν, Rev 2:11).Footnote 81 Grant R. Osborne states regarding this metaphor, ‘In the NT the military overtones are primary.’Footnote 82 Christians in Asia Minor saw on coins and temples emperors in military clothing with military trophies and victory crowns, along with Nike, the personification of victory.Footnote 83 Bruce Metzger writes, ‘The word conquer is a military term. It suggests that the Christian life, so far from being a bed of roses, involves a struggle against anyone and anything that saps the Christian life of all that gives it strength and power.’Footnote 84

Accordingly, given this military context, a victor's wreath symbolises the crown of the triumphant, an award given for military merit in the cosmic conflict.Footnote 85 Craig Koester writes, ‘Revelation pictures the persecution of the church as a war in which Christians are combatants, whose weaponry is their witness to truth (11:7; 12:11; 13:7). For them, wreaths are like the honors given to soldiers.’Footnote 86 John is not writing about a literal crown but uses it as a metaphor for eternal life – ‘the crown of life’.Footnote 87 The letter to Smyrna indicates the fate of the participants in the conflict: the victorious warriors will receive eternal life, and the defeated warriors will die a second death.Footnote 88

Conclusion

Although cosmic conflict is prominent in the central part of the book of Revelation and unfolds in the later chapters, my analysis has shown its strong presence in the first part of the book (Rev 2–3). I have identified four general facets of spiritual warfare: (1) the motif of victory, (2) martyrdom, (3) the ideological war between truth and false teachings and (4) the conflict between holiness and immorality. The seven letters present a clear confrontation between Jesus and the devil, and between Christians and the servants of Satan, which ends in God's victory.

The analysis shows that the letter to the church in Smyrna in Revelation 2:8–11 contains five key points relating to cosmic conflict. First, John shows a war between two leaders of rival camps. The good side is led by Jesus Christ speaking to the church, and the evil side is led by Satan (Rev 2:9–10). John presents the death and resurrection of Jesus Christ as victory over the devil. Second, the letter describes community-based opposition between Christians and Jews (Rev 2:9). The war of words through blasphemy and slander by the Jews is a manifestation of a defining characteristic of the devil, waging war against the sovereignty of God in heaven (Rev 12:7–9). The connection of the letter to Smyrna with a central passage on cosmic conflict in Revelation 12 indicates John's intention to reflect this theme in the seven communities. Third, John, speaking of the attack of the local Roman authorities, incited by the devil, on the community (Rev 2:10), confirms the connection between spiritual and earthly forces in the cosmic conflict. Fourth, the personal dimension of cosmic conflict is expressed in the contrast of courage and fear, which were often characteristics of either victorious or conquered warriors (Rev 2:10). Fifth, military connotations are clearly visible in the motive of victory, which is expressed in the parallelism of two calls and two promises. John describes the call to martyrdom and victory leading to spiritual military triumph – receiving the crown of life and avoiding the ultimate defeat – the second death (Rev 2:10, 11).

All these symbols together form a military narrative of cosmic conflict no less clearly than in other parts of the book of Revelation. Therefore, the seven letters in Revelation 2–3 in general, and the letter to Smyrna in particular, deserve to be included in the discussion of the cosmic conflict in the book of Revelation.

References

1 A version of this article was presented at the Evangelical Theological Society Annual Meeting in San Diego, California, on November 23, 2024. I am grateful to Jörg Frey and the anonymous reviewers for their comments and feedback. Of course, I remain responsible for any errors or infelicitous expressions in what follows. There are different terms for the transcendent, all-encompassing struggle between good and evil, including cosmic conflict, the great controversy and the divine war. In this study, I will use the phrase ‘cosmic conflict’. See Pfandl, Gerhard (ed.), The Great Controversy and the End of Evil: Biblical and Theological Studies in Honor of Ángel Manuel Rodríguez in Celebration of His Seventieth Birthday (Silver Spring, MD: Review and Herald Publishing Association, 2015)Google Scholar; Peckham, John C., Theodicy of Love: Cosmic Conflict and the Problem of Evil (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2018)Google Scholar.

2 Cf. 2 Cor 10:3–5; Eph 2:2; 6:10–18; 2 Tim 2:3–4; 1 Pet 5:8–9; 1 John 4:4.

3 Adela Yarbro Collins (The Combat Myth in the Book of Revelation [Missoula, MT: Scholars Press, 1976], p. 3) states, ‘The basic motifs and pattern of the combat myth play a dominant role in the book of Revelation… The use of the combat myth in Revelation shows that the book should be understood primarily within this tradition.’ Also see Frey, Jörg, ‘Apocalyptic Dualism’, in Collins, John J. (ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Apocalyptic Literature (Oxford: OUP, 2014)Google Scholar; Grabiner, Steven, ‘The Cosmic Conflict: Revelation's Undercurrent’, Journal of the Adventist Theological Society 26/1 (2015), pp. 38–56Google Scholar.

4 Rob van Houwelingen (‘The Air Combat between Michael and the Dragon: Revelaton 12:7-12 in Relation to Similar Texts from the New Testament’, in Koert van Bekkum, Jaap Dekker, Henk R. van den Kamp, and Eric Peels (eds.), Playing with Leviathan: Interpretation and Reception of Monsters from the Biblical World [Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2017], p. 166) notes, ‘It is a conflict between divine and satanic forces in which both heaven and earth with all their residents are involved.’ Harris, David C. (‘The Maritime Wars of 4Q285 and Revelation’, Journal of Early Christian History 12/3 [2022], p. 53)Google Scholar states that John's ‘apocalypse provides an eschatological war of immense scope’.

5 See Mounce, Robert H., The Book of Revelation (Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans, 1998), p. 244Google Scholar.

6 In the context of the cosmic conflict, scholars have mainly focused on the central part of the book: Rev 11–14. Adela Collins and Peter Antonysamy Abir write about Rev 12 in Collins, The Combat Myth in the Book of Revelation; and Abir, Peter Antonysamy, The Cosmic Conflict of the Church. An Exegetico-Theological Study of Revelation 12, 7–12 (Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang, 1995)Google Scholar. Tony Siew explores Rev 11:1–14:5 in Siew, Tony, The War Between the Two Beasts and the Two Witnesses: A Chiastic Reading of Revelation 11:1–14:5 (London: Bloomsbury Publishing, 2005)Google Scholar. Sigve Tonstad focuses on Rev 14:12 in Tonstad, Sigve K., Saving God's Reputation: The Theological function of ‘Pistis Iesou’ in the Cosmic Narratives of Revelation (London: T&T Clark, 2006)Google Scholar. Steven Grabiner selects hymn passages (viz., Rev 4:8–11; 5:9–14; 7:9–12; 11:15–18; 12:10–12; 15:3–4; 19:1–8) in Grabiner, Steven, Revelation's Hymns: Commentary on the Cosmic Conflict (London: Bloomsbury T&T Clark, 2015)Google Scholar. Paul Decock analyses the theme of war throughout the book in Decock, Paul B., ‘Images of War and Creation, of Violence and Non-Violence in the Revelation of John’, in de Villiers, Pieter and Van Henten, Jan Willem (eds.), Coping with Violence in the New Testament (Leiden: Brill, 2012)Google Scholar.

7 Barr, David L. (‘Violence in the Apocalypse of John’, in Koester, Craig (ed.), The Oxford Handbook of the Book of Revelation [Oxford: OUP, 2020], p. 293)Google Scholar writes that a theme of war is ‘only hinted at in the first section (chapters 1–3)’.

8 Sabuin, Richard A., ‘The Alpha-Omega and the Great Controversy in Revelation’, in Pfandl, Gerhard (ed.), The Great Controversy and the End of Evil (Silver Spring, MD: Biblical Research Institute; Review and Herald, 2015)Google Scholar.

9 Ibid., pp. 89–90.

10 As will be shown below, all the letters to the seven churches contain aspects of cosmic conflict. Therefore, each letter can be selected for research. Since there are restrictions on the length of the article, I decided to limit myself to a letter to Smyrna, because it presents the theme of cosmic conflict quite clearly.

11 Sabuin, ‘The Alpha-Omega and the Great Controversy’, p. 85.

12 Rev 9:7, 9; 11:7; 12:7, 17; 13:7; 16:14; 19:19; 20:8.

13 Rev 2:16; 12:7 (2x); 13:4; 17:14; 19:11.

14 Decock, ‘Images of War and Creation, of Violence and Non-Violence’, p. 190.

15 Rev 2:7, 11, 17, 26; 3:5, 12, 21 (2x); 5:5; 6:2 (2x); 11:7; 12:11; 13:7; 15:2; 17:14; 21:7.

16 Leivestad, Ragnar, Christ, the Conqueror: Ideas of Conflict and Victory in the New Testament (London: SPCK, 1954), p. 212Google Scholar.

17 See Gallusz, Laszlo, The Throne Motif in the Book of Revelation (London: Bloomsbury T&T Clark, 2014)Google Scholar.

18 Gallusz notes, ‘Thirty-six references link God individually to the throne’. Ibid., p. 2.

19 See Resseguie, James L., Revelation Unsealed: A Narrative Critical Approach to John's Apocalypse (Leiden: Brill, 1988), p. 24Google Scholar.

20 Barr, David L., Tales of the End: A Narrative Commentary on the Book of Revelation (Santa Rosa, CA: Polebridge Press, 1998), p. 104Google Scholar.

21 Rev 4:8–11; 5:9–14; 7:9–12; 11:15–18; 12:10–12; 15:3–4; 19:1–8. See Grabiner, Revelation's Hymns.

22 See Decock, ‘Images of War and Creation, of Violence and Non-Violence’, p. 190. Richard Bauckham states that ‘holy war imagery permeates the book’. Bauckham, Richard, ‘The Book of Revelation as a Christian War Scroll’, Neotestamentica 22/1 (1988), p. 18Google Scholar.

23 Bauckham, ‘The Book of Revelation as a Christian War Scroll’, pp. 20–21. Decock remarks, ‘The verb σφάζω appears three times in chapter 5 (verses 6, 9, 12) showing that the victory is attributed to the death of the Lamb who was violently killed.’ Decock, ‘Images of War and Creation, of Violence and Non-Violence’, p. 191.

24 All translations are my own unless otherwise noted and are drawn from the Greek text in the NA28.

25 Siew, The War Between the Two Beasts and the Two Witnesses, p. 78. Bauckham writes, ‘The church's witness is given a context in the great cosmic conflict for the sovereignty of the world between God and the forces of evil, a conflict which began in the garden of Eden (12:7) and reaches to the parousia and the judgment (14:14–20).’ Bauckham, Richard, The Climax of Prophecy: Studies on the Book of Revelation (Edinburgh: T&T Clark International, 1998), p. 285Google Scholar.

26 Cf. Tonstad, Saving God's Reputation, p. 65: ‘the description of the war in Rev 12.7–9 brings the cosmic scope of the conflict into full view’.

27 See Abir, The Cosmic Conflict of the Church, pp. 65–7.

28 Shane Wood writes: ‘the saturation of the Apocalypse in Old Testament allusions suggests that the key enemy in this battle is trans-geographical and trans-generational (outside of space and time)’. Wood, Shane J., The Alter-Imperial Paradigm: Empire Studies & the Book of Revelation (Leiden: Brill, 2015), p. 228Google Scholar.

29 Ibid., p. 227.

30 Bauckham, The Climax of Prophecy, p. 285. For the military symbolism of 144,000, see Barr, Tales of the End, p. 114; Keener, Craig S., Revelation: NIV Application Commentary (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2000), p. 369Google Scholar; Caird, George Bradford, The Revelation of Saint John (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson Publishers, 1966), pp. 178–80Google Scholar; Williamson, Peter S., Revelation (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2015), pp. 139–40Google Scholar; Bauckham, Richard, ‘The List of the Tribes in Revelation 7 Again’, Journal for the Study of the New Testament 13/42 (1991), pp. 103–5Google Scholar.

31 See Boxall, Ian, The Revelation of Saint John (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson Publishers, 2006), p. 232Google Scholar.

32 See Brighton, Louis A., Revelation (Saint Louis, MO: Concordia Publishing House, 1999), pp. 452–3Google Scholar; and Ryrie, Charles Caldwell, Revelation (Chicago: Moody Press, 1996), p. 119Google Scholar.

33 See Eduard Lohse, Die Offenbarung des Johannes (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1983), pp. 101–2; Tobias Nicklas, ‘The Eschatological Battle According to the Book of Revelation: Perpectives on Revelation 19:11–21’, in Pieter de Villiers and Jan Willem van Henten (eds), Coping with Violence in the New Testament (Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2012), p. 236.

34 T. F. Glasson notes, ‘it is the final world-conflict in which all the kings of the earth take part’. Glasson, T. F., The Revelation of John (Cambridge: CUP, 1965), p. 110Google Scholar.

35 See Paul, Ian, Revelation: An Introduction and Commentary (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2018), pp. 321–24Google Scholar.

36 See Court, John M., Revelation (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1999), p. 115Google Scholar.

37 Metzger, Bruce M., Breaking the Code: Understanding the Book of Revelation (Nashville, TN: Abingdon Press, 1993), p. 30Google Scholar.

38 See Boring, M. Eugene, Revelation (Louisville, KY: John Knox Press, 1989), pp. 89–90Google Scholar.

39 See Matthijs den Dulk, ‘The Promises of the Conquerors in the Book of Revelation’, Biblica 87/4 (2006), pp. 521–2.

40 See Koester, Craig R., Revelation and the End of All Things (Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans, 2018), p. 57Google Scholar.

41 Decock, ‘Images of War and Creation, of Violence and Non-Violence’, p. 191.

42 Middleton, Paul, Radical Martyrdom and Cosmic Conflict in Early Christianity (London: T&T Clark, 2006), p. 79Google Scholar.

43 Middleton, Radical Martyrdom and Cosmic Conflict, pp. 160–61. Decock (‘Images of War and Creation, of Violence and Non-Violence’, pp. 191–2) writes that ‘Rev 2:26 links the word “conquering” with the phrase “persevere to the end in doing the works of Jesus” as the expression of their radical commitment and their faithfulness unto death.’ Also see Decock, Paul B., ‘The Works of God, of Christ, and of the Faithful in the Apocalypse of John’, Neotestamentica 41/1 (2007), pp. 37–66Google Scholar.

44 Leivestad, Christ, the Conqueror, p. 215.

45 See Wall, Robert W., Revelation (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson Publishers, 1995), p. 74Google Scholar.

46 See Leithart, Peter J., Revelation 1–11 (London: Bloomsbury T&T Clark, 2018), pp. 139–40CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

47 See Giesen, Heinz, Die Offenbarung des Johannes (Regensburg: F. Pustet, 1997), pp. 114–5Google Scholar.

48 Decock writes that this symbol indicates that ‘this is not an ordinary, human war’. Decock, ‘Images of War and Creation, of Violence and Non-Violence’, p. 190.

49 Decock comments, ‘For the followers, however, victory also includes repentance, by which they avoid being punished by Jesus (Rev 2:5, 16, 21–13; 3:3, 19). An important dimension of repentance is to turn away from the works of Satan: Rev 2:22; 9:20; 16:11.’ Decock, ‘Images of War and Creation, of Violence and Non-Violence’, p. 192.

50 See Leithart, Revelation 1–11, p. 130.

51 Bauckham (The Climax of Prophecy, p. 184) writes that John represents the death of Jesus Christ ‘as the fulfilment of Jewish hopes of the messianic conqueror’.

52 See Cremer, Oliver, Das sagt der Sohn Gottes: Die Christologie der Sendschreiben der Johannesoffenbarung (Göttingen: Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener Theologie, 2014), p. 70Google Scholar.

53 See Christopher, John Thomas and Macchia, Frank D., Revelation (Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans, 2016)Google Scholar.

54 See Maier, Gerhard, Die Offenbarung des Johannes: Kapitel 1–11 (Witten; Giessen: SCM R. Brockhaus, 2012), p. 151Google Scholar.

55 Kovacs, Judith L., ‘“Now Shall the Ruler of This World Be Driven Out”: Jesus’ Death as Cosmic Battle in John 12:20–36’, Journal of Biblical Literature 114/2 (1995), p. 231Google Scholar.

56 ‘Just as Christ bore witness in the face of opposition, remained faithful unto death, and was rewarded with life beyond death that could not again be quenched, so the disciple who bears witness in the face of opposition, even unto death, can be assured of the same reward.’ deSilva, David A., ‘Out of our Minds? Appeals to Reason (Logos) in the Seven Oracle of Revelation 2–3’, Journal for the Study of the New Testament 31/2 (2008), p. 136Google Scholar.

57 Buist M. Fanning, Revelation (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Academic, 2020), p. 126. Cf. Cremer, Das sagt der Sohn Gottes, p. 74: ‘In the message to the society of Smyrna, the attributes of Christ's self-presentation emphasize his closeness to the oppressed.’

58 For an exploration of blasphemy in the cosmic conflict in the books of Daniel and Revelation, see Kuryliak, Bohdan and Kuryliak, Ihor, ‘Daniel and Revelation: Blasphemy in the Cosmic Conflict’, Open Theology 10/1 (2024), pp. 1–17CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

59 The common view among commentators is that ‘those who say that they are Jews’ refers to the Jewish community in Smyrna. Craig Koester (Revelation: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary [New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2014], p. 273) notes, ‘The Jewish community at Smyrna was well-established.’ See also Adela Yarbro Collins, ‘Insiders and Outsiders in the Book of Revelation and Its Social Context’, in Jacob Neusner and Ernest S. Frerichs (eds), ‘To See Ourselves as Others See Us’: Christians, Jews, ‘Others’ in Late Antiquity (Chico, CA: Scholars Press, 1985), pp. 205–6; Caird, The Revelation of Saint John, p. 35; E. Leigh Gibson, ‘Jews in the Inscriptions of Smyrna’, Journal of Jewish Studies LVI/1 (2005), pp. 66–79; Eduard Lohse, ‘Synagogue of Satan and Church of God: Jews and Christians in the Book of Revelation’, Svensk exegetisk årsbok 58 (1993), pp. 105–23; Ernst Lohmeyer, Die Offenbarung des Johannes (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1953), p. 24; Henry B. Swete, The Apocalypse of St. John (London: Macmillan, 1911), p. 31; John W. Marshall, Parables of War: Reading John's Jewish Apocalypse (Waterloo: Wilfrid Laurier University Press, 2001), pp. 12–6, 132–4; Mark R. J. Bredin, ‘The Synagogue of Satan Accusation in Revelation 2:9’, Biblical Theology Bulletin 28/4 (1998), pp. 162–4; Paul B. Duff, ‘“The Synagogue of Satan”: Crisis Mongering and the Apocalypse of John’, in David L. Barr (ed.), The Reality of Apocalypse: Rhetoric and Politics in the Book of Revelation (Atlanta, GA: Society of Biblical Literature, 2006), p. 148; Robert Henry Charles, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Revelation of St. John: With Introduction, Notes, and Indices, Also the Greek Text and English Translation (Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1920), vol. 1, pp. 56–7; Friesen, Steven J., ‘Satan's Throne, Imperial Cults and the Social Settings of Revelation’, Journal for the Study of the New Testament 27/3 (2005), pp. 354, 366Google Scholar; Steven J. Friesen, ‘Sarcasm in Revelation 2–3: Churches, Christians, True Jews, and Satanic Synagogues’, in David L. Barr (ed.) The Reality of Apocalypse: Rhetoric and Politics in the Book of Revelation (Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 2006), p. 134. Some researchers, however, believe that this reference to Jews refers a group of people within the church at Smyrna, whether Jewish Christians or gentile Judaisers, or both: Newman, Barclay Moon, Rediscovering the Book of Revelation (Valley Forge, PA: Judson Press, 1968), pp. 48–55Google Scholar; Frankfurter, David, ‘Jews or Not? Reconstructing the “Other” in Rev 2:9 and 3:9’, Harvard Theological Review 94/4 (2001), pp. 403–25Google Scholar; Kraft, Heinrich, Die Offenbarung des Johannes (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1974), pp. 60–61Google Scholar; Gager, John G., The Origins of Anti-Semitism: Attitudes Toward Judaism in Pagan and Christian Antiquity (Oxford: OUP, 1985), p. 132Google Scholar; Wilson, Stephen G., ‘Gentile Judaizers’, New Testament Studies 38/4 (1992), pp. 605–16Google Scholar.

60 See Koester, Revelation, p. 274: ‘Here, the primary sense of blasphēmia is denunciation of Christians before Greco-Roman authorities.’ Gregory Beale suggests, ‘The specific accusations of Jews before government authorities were probably that Christians were upsetting the peace of the status quo, were not a Jewish sect, and refused to pay homage to Caesar as Lord.’ Beale, Gregory K., The Book of Revelation: A Commentary on the Greek Text (Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans; Carlisle: Paternoster Press, 1999), p. 590Google Scholar.

61 Koester, Revelation, p. 275. The hostile actions of Jews against Christians are often recalled by Luke. See Acts 13:45, 50; 14:2–7, 19; 17:5–9, 13; 18:5, 6, 12; 21:27.

62 The believer in Jesus as Messiah/Savior is a true Jew (Rom 2:18–28; Gal 3:29; Eph 2:11–22); see Lohmeyer, Die Offenbarung des Johannes, p. 24.

63 See Michaels, J. Ramsey, Revelation (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1997), p. 75Google Scholar.

64 Christians considered actions against them as actions against Jesus Christ (see e.g. Acts 9:4, 5).

65 See Aune, David E., Revelation 1–5 (Dallas, TX: Word Books, 1997), p. 166Google Scholar.

66 See Num 13:30–14:9; Jude 3; Josephus, Jewish War 1.1.3.

67 See 1 Sam 7:7; 17:11; 23:3; 28:5; Judith 2:28; 4:2; 1 Mac 9:6; 10:76; 12:28; Josephus, Jewish War 1.6.5; 1.17.7; 6.1.7; 7.4.2–3; Thucydides, History of the Peloponnesian War 4.125.1.

68 See Num 21:31–35; Deut 1:21; 3:2, 22; 8:1; 10:8, 25; 11:16; 20:1; 2 Kings 6:16; 19:6; 2 Chron 20:15, 17; Neh 4:14; Ps 3:6; 1 Mac 4:6–18; Wisdom 8–15; Josephus, Jewish War. 2.19.2; 6.1.5.

69 See Ford, J. Massyngberde, Revelation (New York: Doubleday, 1975), p. 396Google Scholar.

70 One of the aspects of the cosmic conflict can be traced here – martyrdom: ‘This call to death is the call to conquer, a crucial concept in the Apocalypse.’ Middleton, Radical Martyrdom and Cosmic Conflict, p. 161.

71 ‘“The second death” marks the end of the cosmic war, culminating in scenes of battle that give the notion of “standing in harm's way” new meaning (20:7–10; 14:13–20). When “the second death” bears down on the world in all its demonic fury (2:11; 20:6, 14), believers “will not be harmed.” There can be no better advice than to stay tuned.’ Tonstad, Sigve K., Revelation (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2019), p. 76Google Scholar.

72 See Cremer, Das sagt der Sohn Gottes, p. 74; Richard, Pablo, Apocalypse: A People's Commentary on the Book of Revelation (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1995), p. 57Google Scholar; Mueller, Wayne D., Revelation (Milwaukee, WI: Northwestern Publishing House, 1996), p. 33Google Scholar.

73 Maier (Die Offenbarung des Johannes, p. 160) gives the following possible interpretations: (1) the wreath for the winners in athletic competitions; (2) the wreath worn by the leading priest at the Dionysus Mysteries; (3) the wreath for public honors, e.g. for civil or military merits; (4) the wreath worn by pagan priests at their sacrifices; (5) the wreath for the priestly authorities of the city; (6) the wreath as a sign of Christian joy at Christian festivals; (7) the wreath as the epitome of the beautiful city architecture of Smyrna; and (8) the wreath, which according to Sir 45:12, the high priest wore in addition to his headband. Also see Hemer, Colin J., The Letters to the Seven Churches of Asia in Their Local Setting (Sheffield: JSOT Press, 1989), pp. 72–7Google Scholar.

74 See Ben Witherington III, Revelation (Cambridge: CUP, 2003), p. 101; Boxall, The Revelation of Saint John, p. 56; Brighton, Revelation, p. 73; David L. Barr, Tales of the End: A Narrative Commentary on the Book of Revelation (Santa Rosa, CA: Polebridge Press, 2011), p. 56; Stevens, Gerald L., Revelation: The Past and Future of John's Apocalypse (Eugene, OR: Pickwick Publications, 2014), p. 306Google Scholar; Giesen, Die Offenbarung des Johannes, p. 110; Lohmeyer, Die Offenbarung des Johannes, p. 25; Metzger, Breaking the Code, p. 33; Mounce, The Book of Revelation, p. 76; Eckley, Richard, Revelation: A Commentary for Bible Students (Indianapolis, IN: Wesleyan Publishing House, 2006), p. 71Google Scholar; Smalley, Stephen S., The Revelation to John: A Commentary on the Greek Text of the Apocalypse (Downers Grove, IL: IVP Academic, 2012), p. 67Google Scholar.

75 See Keener, Revelation, p. 117; Leithart, Revelation 1–11, p. 163.

76 See Aune, Revelation 1–5, p. 173.

77 Arrian, Anabasis 7.5.4–5.

78 See Maxfield, Valerie A., The Military Decorations of the Roman Army (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1992), pp. 55–66Google Scholar.

79 Gregory M. Stevenson, ‘Conceptual Background to Golden Crown Imagery in the Apocalypse of John (4:4, 10; 14:14)’, Journal of Biblical literature 114/2 (1995), p. 265. See Pliny, Natural History 16.3–5; 22.4–7; 33.11.38; 33.16.54; Livy 6.20.4–9; 7.10.1–14; 7.26.10; 7.37.1–3; 10.44.3–4; 26.48.5–6; 34.52.8; 37.46.4; 37.58.4; 37.59.3; 39.5.14; 40.34.8; Velleius Paterculus, History of Rome 1.12.4; 2.81.3; Plutarch, Life of Aemilius 34.3; Alcibiades 33.2; Life of Marcellus 22; Josephus, Jewish War 1.231; 7.124, 135; Cicero, Against Piso 58; Cicero, Laws 24; Thucydides, History of the Peloponnesian War 4.121; Velleius 1.12.4; 2.81.3.

80 Stevenson, ‘Conceptual Background’, p. 258. See Judith 15:13; Josephus, Antiquities 14.299; Philo, De mutatione nominum 109.

81 Koester, Revelation, p. 265. See Plutarch, Life of Caesar 50.

82 Osborne, Grant R., Revelation (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2002), p. 122Google Scholar.

83 See Friesen, Steven John, Imperial Cults and the Apocalypse of John: Reading Revelation in the Ruins (New York: OUP, 2001), p. 62CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

84 Metzger, Breaking the Code, p. 30.

85 Kraft, Die Offenbarung des Johannes, p. 62.

86 Koester, Revelation, p. 277.

87 Tonstad, Revelation, p. 75, concludes, ‘Here, the crowning happens in the context of battle. It will be awarded when the war is won.’

88 The concept of the second death is mentioned four times in the book of Rev (2:11; 20:6, 14; 21:8). For the meaning of the second death, see Houtman, Alberdina and Misset-van de Weg, Magda, ‘The Fate of the Wicked: Second Death in Early Jewish and Christian Texts’, in Houtman, Alberdina, De Jong, Albert, Misset-van De Weg, Magda (eds), Empsychoi Logoi – Religious Innovations in Antiquity: Studies in Honour of Pieter Willem van der Horst (Leiden: Brill, 2008)Google Scholar; Bauckham, Richard, ‘Judgment in the Book of Revelation’, Ex auditu 20 (2004), p. 18Google Scholar.