The morphospace defined by 87 species of ground beetle (Coleoptera: Carabidae) of Scottish non-forested habitats is described with multivariate methods, using 13 linear quantitative measurements of the body, hind legs, eyes and antennae, plus five qualitative characters concerned with body shape, colour, wing development, and pubescence. Relationships between pairs of variables are studied with phylogenetic independent contrasts, using two different taxonomic classifications as an approximation to the phylogeny of the group. The first ordination axis of the morphospace was found mainly to reflect the positive correlation between length of the antennae and length of the hind legs, the second to reflect the width of the head, diameter of the eye and pronotum height, and the third the width of the pronotum and elytra, length of the metatrochanter and width of the metafemur. The principal relationships involving qualitative characters were between colour of the body and legs and shape of the pronotum with ordination axes, wing development with width of the elytra, and pubescence with colour of the legs. Most correlations between quantitative variables, in particular those most influencing the ordination axes of the morphospace, remained significant when measured with phylogenetic independent contrasts using both classifications. Independent contrasts comparing qualitative with quantitative variables or ordination axes were only significant for the colour of the body with the second axis for both classifications used, and length of the antennae with colour of the body and shape of the pronotum for only one of the classifications. The main morphological trends within the morphospace defined are related with published information on their performance, in particular running speed and pushing abilities, following previous work on the functional morphology of the group. The morphospace defined by the species studied is a fundamental tool that will allow further investigations on the relationships between their morphology and life traits, as well as on the relationships of the functional diversity thus characterized with environmental correlates.

Sex differences in body size and head dimensions are widespread in adult snakes, but because data are scarce for neonates, it is unclear whether differences are present from birth or arise post-natally. Here we analyse patterns of sexual dimorphism in neonates and adults of four species of natricine snakes, Nerodia sipedon, Storeria dekayi, Thamnophis radix, and T. sirtalis. Two measures of body size (snout–vent length, mass), four measures of head morphology (head length, head width, jaw length, and interocular distance), and tail length were obtained from wild-caught adults and from offspring born to wild-caught females. Among neonates, significant sexual dimorphism was found in body size for S. dekayi and T. sirtalis, in head dimensions for S. dekayi, T. radix, and T. sirtalis, and in tail length for all four species. Among adults, significant sexual dimorphism was found in body size, head dimensions, and tail length for all four species. The degree of sexual dimorphism in body size among adults greatly exceeded that among neonates. In contrast, the degree of sexual dimorphism in head dimensions was similar between neonates and adults. The presence of significant sexual dimorphism among neonates suggests that hypotheses regarding the evolutionary significance of sexual dimorphism in snakes should consider newborns as well as adults.

Traditional categories of locomotor habit in mammals are largely based on variables that are continuous in nature, making intermediate forms difficult to evaluate quantitatively. Interpretations of these categories have varied greatly among authors, mainly owing to the inconsistent meanings ascribed to these essentially morphological variables. As a result, it is not clear whether these categories reflect any true locomotor influence, or if they can be applied in any form to non-mammalian taxa. In order to rectify these two difficulties, locomotor categories are rejected here in favour of a multivariate continuum. By basing this continuum on morphological variables that fulfil predictions of limb design under biomechanical theory, it can be tied to limb mechanics and applied to both extant and extinct animals alike. A series of such measurements were taken from a large sample of mammal and dinosaur hindlimb bones, and subjected to statistical testing. Patterns of variation in dinosaurs are similar to those seen in mammals, ranging between extremes traditionally designated as ‘cursorial’ and ‘graviportal’. An evaluation of dinosaur locomotor evolution in light of this continuum suggests that dinosaurs originated as small cursors, but that most lineages acquired a more mid-grade locomotor habit. Large taxa (sauropods, armoured ornithischians) were essentially graviportal, while smaller forms tended towards cursoriality; only coelurosaur theropods developed cursoriality at large body sizes. The discrepancy between large, graviportal herbivores and large, mid-grade to cursorial carnivores in Mesozoic communities argues against pursuit predation as a major influence in dinosaur locomotor evolution.

On an East–West transect in northern Patagonia, the steppe-inhabiting mouse Akodon (or Abrothrix) xanthorhinus meets the forest-inhabiting Akodon (Abrothrix) olivaceus on the eastern side of the Andes where steppe meets forest. In a contact zone of about 30 km, the mice are morphologically intermediate. Nuclear (allozyme) and mitochondrial DNA analyses confirm that the genetic difference between eastern, western, and intermediate populations is not much greater than would be expected within individuals from a single population. We conclude that xanthorhinus and olivaceus should be united under the species name olivaceus.

Breeding data for pied flycatchers Ficedula hypoleuca and collared flycatchers F. albicollis, from 47 localities in the Czech Republic and Slovakia, were analysed. We show that co-existence and hybridization were mainly restricted to a rather narrow, latitudinal cline. The distribution of the two flycatchers coincides with topography and habitat, collared flycatchers dominating in warmer habitats than pied flycatchers. Maintained co-existence within the same locality was the exception rather than the rule and most matings occurred in allopatry. In sympatry hybridization occurred at a frequency that was much lower than expected from random mating. Hybrids had low hatching success but some hybrids were apparently fertile. Shortage of conspecific mates may explain why individual birds engage in mixed species pairs. The proportion of pied flycatchers that was involved in mixed pairs was high and increased with decreasing relative frequencies of pied flycatchers in the population. The proportion of collared flycatchers involved in mixed pairs was low, reflecting the higher relative frequency of this species in most mixed populations. Comparisons suggest that fewer hybrids are breeding in the Central European, clinal hybrid zone than in the isolated hybrid zones of the Baltic Isles. Moreover, hybrid fertility was apparently higher in the island zones than in the clinal zone. We suggest that more extensive introgression in the isolated island populations has resulted in an increase in hybrid fitness by an accumulation of fertile individuals of mixed ancestry (i.e. F2, F3 . . . Fn-hybrids) acting as bridges for gene exchange. Differences in the dynamics of the two classes of hybrid zones, especially in pattern of gene flow, may explain these differences in frequency and fertility of hybrids.

A total of 263 individual badgers Meles meles provided 718 blood samples which were screened for parasites. This revealed that 77.2% of individuals tested positive for Babesia missirolii at least once over 3 years, whereas 7.7% did so for Trypanosoma pestanai. However, the prevalence was highest in younger age classes, except in 1990 when it was high in most categories. There was some evidence that following a positive test for Babesia badgers were more likely to be caught again in subsequent years when compared to individuals testing negative. For Trypanosoma, although prevalence decreased from a peak of 29.2% from June onwards in 1990, we found no significant corollaries of infection. These results are discussed in the light of inter-annual variation in weather and other factors.

The bare-tailed woolly opossum, Caluromys philander, and the kinkajou, Potos flavus, are two syntopic neotropical nocturnal, arboreal and frugivorous mammals. Because of close ecology but great difference in size (weight 300 vs 3000 g), they represent pertinent models to examine the influence of size on foraging strategy. These species were studied by radio-tracking and direct observation during 22 months in a tropical forest in French Guiana. Both mammals’ foraging strategies with regard to flowers and fruits are characterized as follows: (1) numerous plant families and species are exploited; (2) most plant species are selected according to their abundance; (3) diet selectivity and diversity are similar in both mammals; (4) relative parts of flowers and fruits in the diet vary according to their year-long availability; (5) the choice of fruiting species is not related to the morphological type, size, or nutritious quality of fruits but instead depends on easy access to the edible part; (6) the length of foraging bouts is correlated with production for the most frequently exploited tree species; (7) feeding bouts are shorter in P. flavus than in C. philander; (8) P. flavus exploits large, highly productive canopy trees, while C. philander also visits canopy trees with low production and understorey trees. In conclusion, both mammals are opportunistic flower- and fruit-eaters, but the larger species (P. flavus) exploits larger, more scattered food patches, while the smaller one (C. philander) also exploits smaller, more numerous and more evenly distributed food patches.

The vasculature and the air ways of the lung of the sandboa Eryx colubrinus were cast using latex rubber, corroded, and studied with a scanning electron microscope to determine the shape, topographic configurations, and relative sizes of the gas exchange components. The sandboa had a right lung and a vestigeal left one. The lung, which terminated close to the anus, consisted of two distinctive anatomical regions. The exchange tissue was located in the cranial half of the lung while the caudal one consisted of a transparent avascular ‘air sac’. The right pulmonary artery, which was found on the laterodorsal aspect of the lung, gave rise to branches which supplied blood to the pleura and the faveolar septal walls. The geometric relationship between the flow of the venous blood (from the pulmonary artery) into the parenchymal zone of the lung and the convective/diffusive outwards air flow from the central air duct into the parenchyma is essentially counter-current: the air moves centrifugally and the blood centripetally. However, the arrangement between the air flow in central air duct and that of the venous blood is cross-current (i.e. the two media run in directions perpendicular to each other). These architectural schemes are similar to those that have developed in the avian lung. In fact, in its simplest form, the parenchymal region of the snake's lung corresponds with a single tertiary bronchus (parabronchus) of a bird lung. Further investigations are necessary to identify the factors that enforced this morphological convergence and to verify whether these congruent features are analogous, as they would seem to be, or from a phylogenetic perspective possibly homologous.

The golden-faced saki monkey Pithecia pithecia chrysocephala (Cebidae, Primates) was observed eating soil from termite nests during a long-term study of a family group in a Central Amazonian forest fragment. In this paper we describe the behaviour involved in the geophagy in these monkeys, and the results of geochemical and physical analyses of the termite nest material, as well as root mat and topsoil samples below the trees, in order to clarify the possible reasons for it. The sakis ate soil from nine arboreal termite nests on 26 soil feeding-bouts (in 853 observation hours); 25 soil feeding-bouts occurred in March 1987 (rainy season), during 19 days or 132 observation hours, and occupied 0.7% of the feeding time. Geophagy frequencies did not differ between sexes (17 feeding-bouts of four females and 8 for two males). Mineral composition was higher in arboreal termitaria than in the topsoil. Kaolinite was the major clay component. Tannin adsorptive capacity, tested through a modified radial diffusion method of Hagerman, was around 10–20%, similar to a control with kaolin (10–20%), but lower than bentonite or celite (30–45%). The observations reported here, although inconclusive as to the function of geophagy in this species, indicate that it is not a mineral supplement during times of scarcity or high consumption of leaves, as has been reported for other primates, nor that it is related to fruit consumption (redressing possible mineral imbalance), as has been suggested for some other frugivorous mammals. Our results do not rule out tannin adsorptive hypothesis for the ingestion of clays, but, being an irregular habit, we argue that it is most likely related to rare and occasional dietary components.

With both a ‘manageable’ number of taxa and moderate levels of behavioural diversity, plethodontid salamanders of the North American subfamily Desmognathinae offer exciting opportunities for a phyloethological study of courtship. In moving toward this goal, the present paper reports courtship descriptions for two taxa with very different biologies: the pygmy salamander Desmognathus wrighti and the blackbelly salamander D. quadramaculatus. Despite similarities in behaviour patterns used to accomplish indirect sperm transfer by means of the deposition of spermatophores on the substrate (tail-straddle walk), these two taxa greatly differ in the ways by which males stimulate, or ‘persuade’, females to mate. Male D. wrighti bite and seize their partners in order to provide them with tactile and chemical stimuli. In contrast, male D. quadramaculatus provide these same stimuli, but by head rubbing and snapping. I end with a comparative survey of courtship in the Desmognathinae, and a first attempt to interpret behavioural evolution in the subfamily using a phyloethological analysis.

The social organization of female mountain gazelles was studied on Mount Carmel, Israel. The behaviour of distinctly recognized individuals was studied by year-round observations. Female gazelles lived in groups whose composition remained constant throughout the year, and new females did not freely enter the established groups. Group home ranges overlapped, but various groups replaced each other in the same area at different times of the day. Different groups tended to use different parts of the overlapping home range. In general, but especially in summer, the different groups largely avoided being synchronously together in the same area. The occurrence of two groups in the same area at the same time was a rare event and when it occurred, a high rate of agonistic interaction was observed between the groups. Hence, groups of female mountain gazelles hold and defend temporal territories against other female groups. Mean seasonal group size ranged between 3.4 and 6.4 and was largest during winter, when groups of females joined together occasionally and little agonistic interaction was observed between the groups. It is suggested that group size is affected by food availability and predation pressure.

The normal diet of most small passerines contains insufficient calcium for effective eggshell formation and birds must often forage specifically for calcium-rich items in the environment. It has been demonstrated that anthropogenic acid precipitation can significantly reduce levels of available calcium in soil and the abundance of calcareous items such as snail shells. Recent research in areas adversely affected by acid precipitation on Continental Europe has suggested that reduced calcium availability has resulted in an increased incidence of eggshell defects in small birds. In this paper we present data from one of the areas of the U.K. most severely affected by acid precipitation and where snail abundance (0.36 snails per m2) and exchangeable soil calcium levels (0.02 mg g−2) were very low: lower than values at sites in the Netherlands where severe eggshell defects occurred. The provision of supplementary calcium and the examination of eggshells, however, provided no evidence that blue tits Parus caeruleus were constrained in their ability to form effective eggshells as a result of calcium deficiency. We suggest that other factors, besides low calcium availability, may be contributory to the high incidence of eggshell defects seen in other areas.

Aspects of coexistence between the dwarf crocodile Osteolaemus tetraspis and the Nile monitor lizard Varanus niloticus were studied in swamp rain forests of south-eastern Nigeria, central Africa. Crocodiles were significantly smaller than monitor lizards. There was no significant sexual size dimorphism in the examined sample of Varanus, whereas the female size exceeded the male size in Osteolaemus. The food niche breadth was narrower in young than in adults of both species, and V. niloticus showed a narrower niche breadth than O. tetraspis. Crabs constituted the main prey type category for both species, whereas vertebrates were more rarely preyed upon. The diet composition of males and females was similar in V. niloticus, but it was different in O. tetraspis. The general diet composition of the two species was similar (78.2% of overlap), and even the habitats where these two species were found were similar. These interspecific similarities suggest that O. tetraspis and V. niloticus could be potential competitors in the freshwater ecosystems of the Nigerian rainforest. However, it is suggested that the main prey type for these species (crabs) is not limited in the environment, which may minimize interspecific competition. Interference competition can also occur between these species, as suggested by one case of direct predation of the one species (V. niloticus) towards the other species (O. tetraspis). A case of cannibalism was observed in V. niloticus. This could indicate that intraspecific competition can be important for regulating the dynamics of monitor populations in the rainforests of south-eastern Nigeria.

In the mating system of Ilyoplax pusilla, wandering females respond to courting, burrow-holding males that wave their chelipeds and enter their burrows. They pair in plugged burrows where mating occurs. Female I. pusilla spawned within 3 days of pairing, after which the male left. The opercula of females became decalcified, before, or more often after, pairing. Decalcification normally follows responsiveness to male courtship, but it is not necessary to produce female receptive behaviour, and pairing with a male in his burrow is not essential to evoke decalcification. After spawning, the numbers of calcified females gradually increased, and most ovigerous females were recalcified before larval release. The percentage of decalcified, single, non-ovigerous females in the population peaked near the full and new moons. The peak percentage of decalcified, non-ovigerous, paired females occurred 2 days later than that of decalcified, single, non-ovigerous females. Decalcified females did not always enter male burrows for mating. Some females remained in their own burrows and laid eggs fertilized with stored sperm. Spawning with stored sperm may be an adaptation to avoid the risk of predation and it enables females, not evicted by neighbouring males, to reproduce.

The following Applications were published on 30 September 1998 in Vol. 55, Part 3, of the Bulletin of Zoological Nomenclature. Comment or advice on any of these Applications is invited for publication in the Bulletin and should be sent to the Executive Secretary (I.C.Z.N.), c/o The Natural History Museum, Cromwell Road, London SW7 5BD, U.K. (e-mail: [email protected]).