In recognition of the fact that orang-utans (Pongo spp.) are severely threatened, a meeting of orang-utan experts and conservationists, representatives of national and regional governmental and non-governmental organizations, and other stakeholders, was convened in Jakarta, Indonesia, in January 2004. Prior to this meeting we surveyed all large areas for which orang-utan population status was unknown. Compilation of all survey data produced a comprehensive picture of orang-utan distribution on both Borneo and Sumatra. These results indicate that in 2004 there were c. 6,500 P. abelii remaining on Sumatra and at least 54,000 P. pygmaeus on Borneo. Extrapolating to 2008 on the basis of forest loss on both islands suggests the estimate for Borneo could be 10% too high but that for Sumatra is probably still relatively accurate because forest loss in orang-utan habitat has been low during the conflict in Aceh, where most P. abelii occur. When those population sizes are compared to known historical sizes it is clear that the Sumatran orang-utan is in rapid decline, and unless extraordinary efforts are made soon, it could become the first great ape species to go extinct. In contrast, our results indicate there are more and larger populations of Bornean orang-utans than previously known. Although these revised estimates for Borneo are encouraging, forest loss and associated loss of orang-utans are occurring at an alarming rate, and suggest that recent reductions of Bornean orang-utan populations have been far more severe than previously supposed. Nevertheless, although orang-utans on both islands are under threat, we highlight some reasons for cautious optimism for their long-term conservation.

Current global marine protection targets aim to protect 10–30% of marine habitats within the next 3–5 years. However, these targets were adopted without prior assessment of their achievability. Moreover, ability to monitor progress towards such targets has been constrained by a lack of robust data on marine protected areas. Here we present the results of the first explicitly marine-focused, global assessment of protected areas in relation to global marine protection targets. Approximately 2.35 million km2, 0.65% of the world's oceans and 1.6% of the total marine area within Exclusive Economic Zones, are currently protected. Only 0.08% of the world's oceans, and 0.2% of the total marine area under national jurisdiction is no-take. The global distribution of protected areas is both uneven and unrepresentative at multiple scales, and only half of the world's marine protected areas are part of a coherent network. Since 1984 the spatial extent of marine area protected globally has grown at an annual rate of 4.6%, at which even the most modest target is unlikely to be met for at least several decades rather than within the coming decade. These results validate concerns over the relevance and utility of broad conservation targets. However, given the low level of protection for marine ecosystems, a more immediate global concern is the need for a rapid increase in marine protected area coverage. In this case, the process of comparing targets to their expected achievement dates may help to mobilize support for the policy shifts and increased resources needed to improve the current level of marine protection.

We present the first assessments of the population, distribution and conservation status of the recently described kipunji Rungwecebus kipunji in forests in the Southern Highlands and Udzungwa Mountains of southern Tanzania. Surveys totalling 2,864 hours and covering 3,456 km of transects were undertaken to determine distribution and group numbers, following which 772 hours of simultaneous multi-group observations in Rungwe-Kitulo and Ndundulu forests, in the Southern Highlands and Udzungwa Mountains respectively, enabled 209 total counts to be carried out. We estimate there are c. 1,042 individuals in Rungwe-Kitulo, with 25–39 individuals per group (mean 30.65 ± SE 0.62, n = 34), and 75 individuals, with 15–25 per group (mean 18.75 ± SE 2.39, n = 4) in Ndundulu. We estimate a total kipunji population of 1,117 in 38 groups, with 15–39 per group (mean 29.39 ± SE 0.85, n = 38). The Ndundulu population may no longer be viable and the Rungwe-Kitulo population is highly fragmented, with isolated sub-populations in degraded habitat. We recorded areas of occupancy of 1,079 and 199 ha in Rungwe-Kitulo and Ndundulu, respectively, giving a total of 1,278 ha. We estimate the species’ extent of occurrence to be 1,769 ha, with 1,241 and 528 ha in Rungwe-Kitulo and Ndundulu, respectively. We believe the kipunji faces an extremely high risk of extinction in the wild and recommend the species and genus be categorized as Critically Endangered on the IUCN Red List.

The recently-described Arunachal macaque Macaca munzala is so far known only from western Arunachal Pradesh, north-east India. Here we present the first conservation status assessment for the species. Our surveys enumerated a total of 569 individuals in the Tawang and West Kameng districts of the State. The species seems to be tolerant of anthropogenic habitat change but is vulnerable to hunting. A low infant to adult female ratio suggests that not all adult females reproduce at any given time, and females do not give birth every year. The macaques are persecuted largely in response to crop damage, with the practice of keeping them as pets providing an added incentive to hunting. The species is, however, able to attain remarkably high densities in the absence of hunting. Crop damage by the macaque is widespread; patterns of crop damage are similar across altitudinal zones and do not seem to be correlated with macaque density. The species will need to be protected in human-modified landscapes, and the issues of crop damage and retaliatory persecution need to be addressed urgently.

In 2004 the Ebola virus caused a drastic decline in western gorilla Gorilla gorilla abundance at Lokoué Bai, a clearing in Odzala National Park, Republic of Congo. This decline was detected by observations of gorillas visiting the clearing. We confirm that the sympatric chimpanzee Pan troglodytes population was also affected by the Ebola outbreak, and test whether the decline in the ape population would have been detected with line-transect surveys, the most commonly used wildlife monitoring methodology in Central Africa. We also evaluate the potential of transect surveys for describing the extent and pinpointing the timing of drastic population declines when this information is not known from other evidence. Both nest survey using the marked nest count method and standing stock survey of other signs of ape presence (dung, feeding remains, prints) were able to detect the decline. However, only nests and dung were reliable indices for estimating the magnitude of the decline and accurately pinpointing the timing. It was necessary to pool data across many survey replicates because of small samples sizes. Our results suggest that transects methods are able to detect drastic changes in ape abundance but that large sample sizes are necessary to achieve adequate statistical power. We therefore recommend that those intending to use transect methods as tools for monitoring large forest mammals evaluate in advance how much effort will be necessary to detect meaningful changes in animal abundance.

The island of Siberut in the Mentawai Archipelago, west of Sumatra, Indonesia, supports four of the five primate species endemic to the Archipelago, all categorized as threatened on the IUCN Red List. As a baseline for future research on the ecology and conservation of Siberut's primates we used a line-transect approach to survey primates in the Peleonan forest, site of the Siberut Conservation Project in northern Siberut. In 104 km of surveys we made a total of 391 observations of primates and estimated density and population sizes for the Project's 10.7 km2 main study site. Overall primate biomass density was estimated to be 697 kg km-2 and abundances, in individuals km-2, were: pig-tailed snub-nosed langur Simias concolor, 53.1; Siberut macaque Macaca siberu, 16.2; Kloss's gibbon Hylobates klossii, 8.9; Mentawai langur Presbytis potenziani, 8.2. These results confirm those from earlier studies that in undisturbed and unhunted primary forests S. concolor is more successful than the sympatrically occurring P. potenziani. Results for all species suggest considerable population sizes on the island and underline its importance for the conservation of Mentawai primates.

Over the past 15 years the Tanzanian government has promoted participatory forest management (both joint forest management and community-based forest management) as a major strategy for managing natural forests for sustainable use and conservation. Such management is currently either operational or in the process of being established in > 3.6 million ha of forest land and in > 1,800 villages. Data from three case studies of forests managed using participatory and non-participatory forest management approaches suggest that community involvement in forest management is correlated with improving forest condition. In our first case study we demonstrate increasing basal area and volume of trees per ha over time in miombo woodland and coastal forest habitats under participatory forest management compared with similar forests under state or open access management. In our second case study three coastal forest and sub-montane Eastern Arc forests under participatory forest management show a greater number of trees per ha, and mean height and diameter of trees compared to three otherwise similar forests under state management. In our third case study levels of cutting in coastal forest and Eastern Arc forests declined over time since initiation in participatory forest management sites. We conclude that participatory forest management is showing signs of delivering impact in terms of improved forest condition in Tanzanian forests but that further assessments need to be made to verify these initial findings.

Hunting of wildlife in Central Africa is largely considered to be unsustainable. Several studies indicate that most mammal species should already have disappeared from many Central African forests but markets continue to be supplied with bushmeat, with no sign of large scale extinction of the most common species. Most studies of the sustainability of duiker (Cephalophus spp.) hunting in Central Africa are based on the same index of hunting. We illustrate how uncertainty is accumulated in these estimations of sustainability. We show that the results obtained in different sites are not comparable because a variety of methods have been used to calculate the parameters of the model and each of the methods has different sources of error. For the assessment of maximum sustainable harvest for duikers, the studies reviewed differ mainly in the value chosen for the hypothetical adjustment factor, and the method used to calculate the rate of maximum population increase and to estimate duiker population densities. For the assessment of annual hunting offtake the studies differ mainly in the scale at which they were conducted (village or regional), and sampling and extrapolation methods. Without evaluation of accuracy and standardization of methods for the estimation of maximum sustainable harvest and annual offtake, conclusions regarding harvesting based on biological indices should be treated with extreme caution.

Botanists have been urged to help assess the conservation status of all known plant species. For resource-poor and biodiversity-rich countries such assessments are scarce because of a lack of, and access to, information. However, the wide range of biodiversity and geographical resources that are now freely available on the internet, together with local herbarium data, can provide sufficient information to assess the conservation status of plants. Such resources were used to review the vascular plant species endemic to Trinidad and Tobago and to assess their conservation status. Fifty-nine species were found to be endemic, much lower than previously stated. Using the IUCN Red List criteria 18 endemic species were assessed as Critically Endangered, 16 as Endangered, 15 as Vulnerable, three as Near Threatened, and three as Data Deficient (i.e. insufficient data are available to assess their conservation status). Although such rapid assessments cannot replace in depth research, they provide essential baseline information to target research and conservation priorities and identify specific conservation actions.

In an attempt to identify the critical threats to avian biodiversity in Greece we present and analyse a data set of the birds received at a rehabilitation centre. During a 10-year period (1996–2005) a total of 21,190 birds were admitted to the Hellenic Wildlife Hospital from throughout Greece. Our results indicate that shooting is by far the most important threat to birds in Greece, followed by accidents. Although greater numbers of shot birds were received during the autumn and winter months, when hunting is allowed, birds were received year-round. Birds were received from all areas of Greece, with the highest number received during the summer months. The high number of shot birds received during the months in which hunting is prohibited demonstrates the lack of law enforcement. We argue the need for direct political decisions concerning the enforcement of existing regulations on hunting. Decision makers and managers could use the findings of our study to re-evaluate and design conservation policy in Greece, including reduction of the hunting period and restriction on hunting activities.

Numerous studies have documented behavioural changes in wildlife because of human disturbance. Disturbance may threaten waders if there are no alternative habitats or foraging times. Here we compared human and dog densities, natural and anthropogenic disturbance rates, prey availability and wader foraging rates at five sites in and around Khao Sam Roi Yod National Park, Thailand, with different shorebird densities, to assess whether disturbance forced wintering waders to under-use high quality sites consistently. We also examined diel and tidal variability in prey densities and tested whether people and dogs cause temporary displacement or reductions in foraging rates. Although there were significant differences in shorebird, human and dog densities as well as anthropogenic disturbance rates and prey availability amongst the five sites, there was no indication that birds were being displaced from the highest quality habitat. There was little diel or tidal variation in most types of prey. People did not temporarily displace waders but did reduce foraging rates. The availability of high quality, alternative foraging habitat with low human disturbance, and nocturnal prey availability, along with the lack of any short-term displacement of birds from areas of high disturbance suggest that disturbance is unlikely to affect wader fitness in this National Park. By examining a range of important habitat characteristics and wader spatial distributions, our study demonstrates a method and a theoretical framework to evaluate the possible impacts of human disturbance on wildlife.

Indian Ocean seabirds are subject to numerous threats, and populations are thought to be at a fraction of historical levels. We carried out a rapid assessment of the seabird breeding populations of the Chagos Archipelago, a UK Overseas Territory, during early March 2006. We surveyed 26 islands covering the four island groups of the Archipelago. A total of 17 species of breeding seabird were recorded. Since the last survey in 1996, nine species showed reductions in the number of breeding pairs, with brown noddy Anous stolidus and lesser noddy Anous tenuirostris showing reductions of c. 22,000 and c. 27,000 pairs, respectively. These reductions, coupled with apparent sooty tern Sterna fuscata colony relocations, are central to our suggested changes to the Important Bird Areas (IBAs) criteria in the Archipelago and we propose two new sites for IBA status. We discuss our findings within a regional conservation context and provide recommendations for the implementation of an annual monitoring scheme of Chagos seabird populations to allow appropriate conservation management.

In Botswana a large cheetah population, with higher densities outside than inside protected areas, increases the potential of conflict with farmers because of livestock depredation. However, information on the extent of livestock depredation by cheetah and farmers’ perceptions of this has been lacking. We interviewed 123 farmers in Ghanzi District, Botswana, to assess problems caused by cheetah depredation of livestock and farmers’ attitudes towards cheetah conservation beyond protected areas. Despite livestock losses, farmers generally supported efforts to conserve cheetah, with support increasing with level of education. However, farmers felt that cheetah should not be conserved within farming areas. Land-use practice and culture related to land use played a major role in determining the level of farmers’ support for cheetah conservation beyond protected areas: high on private farms, moderate in wildlife management areas, and low on communal lands. Underreporting by farmers led to underestimation by the Department of Wildlife and National Parks of the extent and nature of cheetah conflict with farmers. This study suggests that education and active involvement of farmers in planning and decision-making concerning cheetah management would enhance farmers’ positive perception of cheetah conservation beyond protected areas.

Worldwide, many large mammals are threatened by poaching. However, understanding the causes of poaching is difficult when both hunter and hunted are elusive. One alternative is to apply regression models to opportunistically-collected data but doing so without accounting for inherent biases may result in misleading conclusions. To demonstrate a straightforward method to account for such biases, and to guide further research on an elusive Vulnerable species, we visualized spatio-temporal poaching patterns in 844 Andean bear Tremarctos ornatus presence reports from the Cordillera de Mérida, Venezuela. To create maps of poaching risk we fitted two logistic regression models to a subset of 287 precisely georeferenced reports, one ignoring and one including spatial autocorrelation. Whereas the variance explained by both models was low, the second had better fit and predictive ability, and indicated that protected status had a significant positive effect on reducing poaching risk. Poaching risk increased at lower altitudes, where all indicators of human disturbance increased, although there was scant evidence that human-bear conflicts are a major direct trigger of poaching events. Because highest-risk areas were different from areas with most bear reports, we speculate that hunting may be driven by opportunistic encounters, rather than by purposeful searches in high-quality bear habitat. Further research comparing risk maps with bear abundance models and data on poaching behaviour will be invaluable for clarifying poaching causes and for identifying management strategies.

Pan troglodytes vellerosus, the Nigerian-Cameroon chimpanzee, is the most recently recognized chimpanzee subspecies and is categorized as Endangered on the IUCN Red List. Current estimates, based on a range of sources, suggest the total number of individuals to be between 5,000–8,000. This study used a transect survey to estimate the population of P. t. vellerosus within the Nigerian submontane forest of Ngel Nyaki Forest Reserve, in Taraba State. The forest is an isolated fragment of c. 7.5 km2. Total nest building population size (n = 12.5) and population density (1.67 weaned chimpanzees km-2) were estimated from the number of nests observed along line transects. The maximum nest-group size (n = 11) suggests that this population comprises a single community. The low estimated population numbers within Ngel Nyaki forest, compounded by the forest's isolated location, highlight the urgent need for conservation action.

The sarus crane, a bird species characteristic of wetlands, is categorized as vulnerable on the IUCN Red List. In India, sarus cranes occur mostly outside protected areas and use these unprotected areas for feeding and breeding. They are consequently threatened by poaching and the destruction of their eggs and juveniles. To protect the crane's habitat and nests a community education and awareness campaign was carried out, using audiovisual shows and presentations, in villages and schools in the vicinity of sarus crane nesting sites in Kota district, Rajasthan. In 2004–2005 protection of 22 nests by volunteer Rural Village Sarus Protection Groups, formed as a result of the campaign, resulted in the successful fledging of 19 chicks, including some in the dry season. Our experience with this project demonstrated that it is possible to re-establish a bond between farmers and nature, and work on community involvement for the sarus crane is continuing, with the involvement of more districts in Rajasthan.

In 2004 an intensive survey of Latakia and other Syrian beaches was undertaken to improve and update knowledge of Syria's marine turtle nesting populations. The survey confirmed that loggerhead turtles Caretta caretta nest in Syria (eight nests recorded), distributed diffusely along the coast, but also identified hitherto undescribed green turtle Chelonia mydas nesting aggregations. The most important green turtle nesting site was the 12 km of beach south-east of Latakia that ranks in the Mediterranean's top 10 rookeries for this species (in terms of maximum number of nests), with 104 of the 106 nests recorded in this study. Mean clutch size of green turtles (108 ± SD 25.1, range 72–164, n = 29) was comparable with other Mediterranean rookeries, and hatching success (percentage of eggs that produced hatchlings) of successful nests was 83.5%. The main problems facing the turtles and their nests were found to be deliberate killing of adults, nest predation and hatchling disorientation. We recommend initiation of annual monitoring and nest protection at the main green turtle nesting beach and investigations of possible at-sea turtle populations together with a campaign to raise awareness and acceptance amongst stakeholders.