Index

Rolf K. Baltzersen

doi:10.1017/9781108981361.017

Index

activism, See also Movement, social

clicktivism, 301, 307, 311, 386

online activism, 301, 311

participatory mapping, 332

alignment, 116, 127

premature alignment, 315

animal behavior, collective, 4, 20

ants, 21, 78–80, 129, 171–173, 177–178

baboons, 88–90

birds (geese), 108

birds (starlings), 115

chimpanzees, 104, 106, 135, 256, 260–261

elephants, 106

fish, 78–79, 107–108, 116–118

giant honeybees, 115

honeybees, 20, 78, 89, 96, 101–104, 114, 126, 130

honeybees (waggle dance), 99, 102, 134, 337

meerkats, 80–81

navigation, 106–108, 116

nest building, 21

nest siting, 93–96, 134

termites, 173–175

trail laying, 21

wasps, 175–177

whirligig beetles, 81–82

animal intelligence, 4, 6

argument mapping, 2, 19, 24, 51, 68–73, 194, 237, 283, 316, 319–320, 332, 337–339, 352, 354–355, 363

advantages, 70–72

artificial intelligence, 5, 16

artificial swarm intelligence (ASI), 102

athens, ancient, 22, 135, 281, 286, 298

assembly of the people, 22, 145, 153, 155–157, 159–161, 355

citizens’ tokens, 393–395

citizenship, 143–144

Cleisthenes, 143–144, 151, 155–156

council of 500 22, 145–148, 153

Heliastic Oath, 148, 158, 162–163, 355, 393

kleroterion, 149–151, 166

magistrates, 151–153, 269–271

nomothetai, 25, 341, 355–356

ostracism, 156–157, 169

People’s Court, 22, 148–151, 153, 157–159, 161–163, 166, 392

Pnyx, 155

Socrates, 158–159

attention economy, 186, 198, 222–223, 306, 335, 414

averaging, 20, 24, 77, 82, 88–93, 108, 129, 131, 134, 318, 330, 343

animals, 88–90

humans, 90–93

median, 92, 158

bias, 57, 110, 131, 184–185, 294, 298, 305, 319, 333, 336, 343, 377

Binet, Alfred, 7

C factor, See Group intelligence factor, general

citizen participation, 5, 276, 278, 286, See democracy, participatory

citizen science, 1, 5, 18, 20, 73, 91, 131, 276, 300, 313, 381, 415

eBird, 19, 41, 47, 51, 53–54, 73, 194, 332–333

Galaxy Zoo, 383, 391

Galaxy Zoo Quench, 61–62, 73, 331

Snapshot Serengeti, 41, 47, 313

Zooniverse, 19, 28, 39–42, 62

cognitive surplus, 395

collaboration

calculated reciprocity, 23, 267–268

elaborative, 23, 271–275, 291, 317

group size, 351

joint coordination, 22, 238, 250–253, 291–292, 349–350

mutual, 23, 254–262, 291

relationship, 21, 238–242, 267, 273–275

rule-governed, 23, 271–275

sympathy, 23

communication, gestural, 23, 138–139, 254

origins, 255–258

pointing, 256–258

community, 19, 278, 329, 386–389, 393, 396, See also unknown others (strangers), See also learning, community of learners

close engagement, 310–311

cosmopolitanism, 408, 416

global, 4, 9, 48, 118, 307, 315, 353, 416, See also Internet memes

loose engagement, 309–310

offline, 254, 299–300, 303

Condorcet jury theorem, 85

contests, 48, 101, 127–128, 190–191, 194–195, 383, 396, See also innovation contest, See also Hackaton, See also Foldit

innovation, 381, 394

contributions, dependent, 21, 77, 103, 129, 132, 293, 309, 313, 352

contributions, independent, 10, 21, 45, 77, 86–87, 92–93, 98–99, 110, 113, 129, 131, 298, 313, 318, 330, 336, 379

animals, 94–96, 105

origins, 166

coordinator, 363, See facilitator

copyright, 223–224

Creative Commons, 50, 52, 72, 196, 224, 237, 388

critical discourse, 25, 298, 306, 311, 337–338, 364–365, 411, 414, 416, See also video; vlog (videoblog)

argument mapping, 71–72

citizen empowerment, 64–65, 311, 359, 400, 411

citizen metadiscourses, 25, 286, 352

internet memes, 198–200

invention of newspapers, 228–229

news, 307–308

origins, 161–163, 355–356

Slashdot, 184

crowdsourcing, 4–5, 16, 18, 20–21

crowdfunding, 83–85, 129, 167, 286, See also Kickstarter

disaster management, 53, 66, 119–121, 129–130, 133, 170

idea development, 359

lawmaking, 295–298, 320–325

passive crowdsourcing, 124, 129

smart cities, 121–124, 129, 282–285

threadless, 28, 191

urban planning, 123–124

crowdsourcing method

Delphi method, 111–114, 132, 166

dynamic forecasting, 186–192

prediction market, 10, 21, 186–190, 314, 318, 383

prediction poll, 190–191

swarm platforms, 102, 383

decision threshold, 10, 20, 77–88, 134, See also Voting

decision speed, 130

majority, 77, 85–88, 108, 111, 128

majority (animal), 87–88

majority (origins), 153–155, 356

market prize, 189

quorum, 77, 82–88, 102–103, 129

quorum (animals), 77–82, 96, 129

quorum (origins), 155

supermajority, 113, 128

decision-making, independent, See contributions, independent

deliberation, 69–70, 132, 276, 288, 295, 298, 310–311, 316, 319, 333, 359, See also argument mapping

ancient Athens, See also Athens, ancient; Council of 500

deliberative democracy, 4, 96, 281–282, 310, 356–361, See also Democracy, participatory

Deliberative Polling, 96–99, 132–133, 166, 279, 281, 318, 358, 392

mass deliberation, 24, 278–285, 311, 359, 364, 415

online, 284–285, 298, 307–308, 324, 348–349

origins, 163

democracy

direct, 286, 288, 311

epistemic, 14

liquid, 345

open, 24, 277, 400

polycentric, 361

representative, 286, 288, 356

democracy, participatory, 4, 24, 96, 276–278, 409

Better Reykjavik, 24, 279, 282–285, 310, 329

citizen activism, 298–303

citizen assembly, 24–25, 279–282, 310, 341, 356–361, 364, 392

citizen expertise, 24, 276, 280, 282, 284–285, 289, 304, 323–324

citizen responsibility, 25, 359, 377–378, 411, 416

citizens’ initiatives, 287, 290–297

dysfunctional participation, 303–309

Icelandic constitutional experiment, 295–296, 309

mini-publics, 278, 360–361

origins, 152

output legitimacy, 280, 283–284, 323–324, 359–360

participatory budgeting, 98

smart cities, 122–124

vTaiwan, 24, 284, 320–325, 336–338

democracy, open, 413

Dewey, John, 361, 365, 411

diversity prediction theorem, 11–12, 109, 134, 319

diversity, human, 6, 10–15, 399, 410–411, 416

citizen diversity, 14, 198

cognitive diversity, 6, 13–15, 21, 28, 32–35, 45, 134, 238, 242–247, 249, 275

community diversity, 48–49, 294, 310

geographical diversity, 246, 276, 417

identity diversity, 244–246

informational diversity, 6, 12, 22, 26, 46, 71–72, 98–99, 111, 114, 118, 125, 127, 132, 134–135, 163, 167, 169, 219, 247, 304, 318–319, 334, 336–337, 351, 413

multicultural diversity, 21, 35, 63, 66, 247, 408

multidisciplinary diversity, 21, 112, 114, 246–247, 316, 327, 408

origins, 417–418

participatory diversity, 24, 348, 358

prediction diversity, See Diversity prediction theorem

representativeness, 357–358

Durkheim, Emile, 8

education, 19, See Open textbook

environmental sensing, 20, 25, 77

animals, 93–96, 114–118

human, 118–124, 368–370

origins, 143–147

equal participation, 21, 23, 71, 97, 109, 111, 114, 152, 154–155, 166, 189, 238, 247–250, 254, 311, 334, 358

animals, 94–96

origins, 266–271

errors, 198, 237, 313, 318, 383

animals, 118, 131

evaluation, intelligent, 45, 120–121, 123–124, 236, 340–365, 370–372

animals, 93–94, 129

crowd feedback, 295–298

Facebook, 26, 63, 99, 120, 183, 286, 296, 298, 300, 302, 305–306, 308, 310, 312, 321, 347, 364, 373, 401–402

facilitator, 36, 48, 61–62, 99, 109, 112–113, 127, 133, 249–253, 308, 331, 348–349, 353–355, 358

fairness, 23, 151–152, 166, 267, 315–316, 319–320, 343, 358, 363, 392, 416, See also equal participation

“fair algorithms”, 405

free riding, 201–202, 249, 255

origins, 268–269

feedback

negative spiral, 102, 407

positive, 78, 88, 96, 315, 335, 371

filter bubble, See Social media; echo chamber

Five Star Movement, Italy, 24, 285–290, 296–298, 309, 388

flocking behavior, 20

Foldit, 19, 28, 42–48, 109, 168–169, 277–278, 329, 348, 384–388, 415

forecasting, collective, See crowdsourcing method; prediction market

Galaxy Zoo, 19, 28, 47, 91, 131, 166, 313, 329, 394–395

Galton, Francis, 11

gamification, 19, 407, 415

Gardner, Howard, 7

animals, 96

humans, 96–102

origins, 139–140

geodata, 41, 66–67, 119–123

mobile crowdsensing, 130

Google, 26, 99, 181–182, 191, 304–305, 334–335, 342, 401–402, 414–415

governance, neobehavioristic, 26

governance, participatory, See democracy, participatory

group cognition, 4, 8

group intelligence factor, general, 6, 21, 238

group mind, 8

groupthink, 71, 113, 131–132, 184, 247–248, 333, 335, 364, See also social media, echo chamber

herding, 110, 131, 133

homophily, 71, 183

Gutenberg, Johannes, 214

Hackathon, 99–102, 109, 130, 132–133, 168, 291, 321, 329, 382, 388–389

heterogeneous social interaction, 20, 77

animals, 104–108

humans, 108–114

origins, 108–114

hoplites, 154–155, 166

humans, prehistoric

first Homo Sapiens, 417–418

hunter-gatherer groups, 23, 136–142, 255

hunting, group, 135

animals, 104–106

human, 22, 136–139, 165

IdeaConnection, 15, 18, 28, 392, 395

IdeaRally, 19, 48, 109, 132–134, 168, 329

teams, 240–244, 246–253, 258–260, 270–271, 292, 316–317, 327–329, 350, 384–385, 389–391

imitation, See also memes, internet

innovation, 224, 410

inside-out open, 67–68

open, 27, 283

open online, 1

outside-in open, 28, 67

social, 19, 379–380

innovation contest, 379, 392, See also IdeaConnection

Climate CoLab, 18, 28, 36–38, 47–48, 194–195, 317, 325, 391

innocentive, 28, 326, 353, 392

intermediary, 15, 18, 28–32

online, 15–16, 18, 20, 28, 36–38, 48, 313, 325–328, 353, 383

online team, 15, 19, 409

origins, 146–147

Topcoder, 28, 48, 353, 385–387, 391–392

intelligence

civic, 19–20, 281, 360–361, 394–395, 408–417

group intelligence test, 7–8

individual, 238

individual intelligence test, 7

instrumentarian, 401–408, 411, 417

social, 239

Internet, 2–4, 9–10, 235–237, 276, 286–287, 303–309

techno-optimism, 401

web 2.0, 3–4, 276–277, 400

Kickstarter, 28, 83–85, 167

knowledge advancement, collective, 23, 400, See also Stigmergy, fluid

book learning, 220–222

book translations, 195–197, 229–232, 237

corporate, 19, 67–68

establishment of science, 228, 235

overview, 70, 219, 294, 316, 335–339, 350–353, 359, 371

printed images, 225–228

printing press, 215–218, 408–411

scientific, 19, 40–41

knowledge commons, 25–26, 195, 224, 361–362, 365, 414, See also creative commons, See also Wikipedia, See also citizen science, See also OpenStreetMap, See also open textbook

open access, 19, 51–52, 72, 195, 224, 361, 372, 415

open digital database, 51–54, 73, 237, 290, 332–333, 370–373, See also Citizen science; eBird

open educational resources (OER), 55, 372

open science, 24, 277, 400, 413

Plan S, 52

knowledge sharing, 23, 109, 114, 132, 209, 224, 232, 234, 304, 398–399, 415, See also Stigmergy, frozen

animals, See Animal behavior, collective; honeybees (waggle dance)

censorship, 414

citizen expertise, 183

democratization of knowledge production, 50–51, 237, 400

open online, 1, 18–20, 25, 287, 333, 376–377

origins, 146–147

sharing economy, 342

large gatherings, 20, 22, 77, 93–102, 109, 134, 169, 295

learning

behavioral modification, 346–347, 402, 408

centralized network, 110–111

collective, 25, 118, 363, 369–370, 378–380, 390–391

community of learners, 23, 101–102, 254, 262–266

conversational, 133

copying behavior, 104–105, 108, 110, 116

individual, 132–133, 340, 358, 382, 389–390, 396

observational, 132–133, 266, 291, 294

social, 108–110, 118, 267

stone tool, 23, 262–266

transformative, 391–392

transparent environment, 35–36, 310

triple loop, 340, 350, 363

Lévy, Pierre, 2, 9, 400

lottocracy, 170, 324, See Randomization

Luther, Martin, 229–231

machine intelligence, 6, 16, 400, 415–416, See also reputation, See also search engine, See also intelligence, instrumentarian

behavioral surplus, 401, 411

hive mind, 402, 408

machine learning, 103, 336, 365, 415

smart recommendations, 401–402

surveillance technology, 373, 375

Malone, Thomas W., 4

many eyes principle, 13–14, 21, 90, 115–116, 129, 134, 313–314, 317

many wrongs principle, 12–13, 20, 71, 87–90, 107–108, 115, 118, 131, 134, 318

origins, 158, 163

marginality effects, 325

marginalized groups, 335

minority group, 338

memes, internet, 197–200, 223, 237, 299, 307

memory, human collective, 22, 26, 50, 62, 72–73, 201, 208–209, 214, 221, 227–228, 237, 361–363, 399, 414, See also Knowledge commons

metacognition, collective, 340, See Metacommunication

metacommunication, 25, 126, 340, 349–351, 363–364

metadiscourse, See also Critical discourse; Citizen metadiscourses

deliberation analytics (argument mapping), 352

metadiscourse tools, 352

written discussions, 352–353

misinformation, 354, 361, 372–373, 377, 400, 414

fake news, 24, 277, 305–309

social media, 372

mobile technologies, 119, See also Geodata

moderator, See facilitator

modularization, 25, 59, 121, 314, 329–335, 352, 355, 392

microtasks, 382–383

motivation, 46, 153, 280, 343–345, 347–348, 358, 363, 371, 381–400

social comparison, 97, 346–347, 364, 406–407

movement, social, 282

Five Star Movement, 285

My Stealthy Freedom, 24, 302–303, 310, 312

Sunflower movement, 320

Mumford, Lewis, 410–411, 416

monotechnics, 410–411

polytechnics, 410

networks

centralized, 107, 110–111, 114

decentralized, 110, 276

network society, 2–4, 200

networked individualism, 278

origins, 22, 140–142, 167

ResearchGate, 344

social network incentives, 402

open source software, 5, 10, 67, 99, 195, 237, 315, 329, 347, 381

open textbook, 19, 21, 51, 54–56, 72, 186, 195–197, 224, 237, 299, 316, 331

OpenStreetMap, 66–67, 300, 332, 388

peer production, 4, 74, 276, 278, 348, 364, 381, 387

crowd peer review, 24, 292–295, 309, 314

peer review, 186, 315, 341

phylogenesis, 22

polymath project, 19, 51, 58–61, 73, 278, 290, 310, 314, 328, 351, 353–354, 385–386, 395

portfolio effect, 192

prediction market, See crowdsourcing method, prediction market

PredictIT, 187–190

predictive science, 403, 414

printing press, 9, 22, 208, 214–232, 234–235, 399, 408

problem solving

anonymous, 113, 162, 292, 310

complex, 2, 16, 68–72, 126, 195, 278, 319–320, 351, 360, 383

iterative, 112–113, 293, 317

rapid, 32–36, 68–70, 101–102, 130–131, 135, 159, 162–163, 166, 293, 297–298, 309, 370

team, 19, 239, 243, 327–329

problem, wicked, 2, 25, 366–368

climate change, 2, 36–38, 48, 285, 288, 304, 358–360, 364, 391, 411, 418

COVID-19 305, 361, 366–381

randomization, 96–98, 280–281, 295, 357

origins, 108–114, 143–144, 162, 170, 355

representativeness, 96–97, 280, 295, 311, 324, 345, 357, 392

reputation

deliberation, 347–349, 364

manipulation, 344

meritocracy, 344, 347–349

national social credit system, 403–408, 416

origins, 270–271

researchers, 344–345

score, 341, 363–364, 385, 403–407, 416–417

society, 25, 340–344, 364, 385, 403

state, 26, 403–408, 416–417

systems, 25, 183–184, 344–347, 365, 403

rotation, 281–282, 286, 311, 358

animals, 107

origins, 108–114, 146, 170

rules, behavioral, 57–58, 60, 125–126, 172

compliance, 370, 373–375, 377–378

conformity, 110, 113, 378

neobehaviorism, 406

Search engine, 181–183, 221, 304–305, 334–335, 399, 414–415, See also attention economy, See also Google

DuckDuckGo, 415

self-organization, 6, 9–10, 309, 355

self-selection of tasks, 27, 309, 311, 392

sensing, emergent, See environmental sensing

sentiment analysis, 120–121, 124, 129

skills, individual

environmental literacy, 359

expert, 47

information searching, 334

interpersonal, 239

mathematical, 60

political, 152

reading, 219, 229, 235

spatial reasoning skills (exceptional), 47

teenagers, 348

visual perception, 47, 381

Skinner, B.F., 402

social media, 24, 63, 68, 120–121, 129, 182–183, 277, 286, 300, 305, 307, 311, 337, 340, 346–348, 364, 372, 382, 386, 400, 414, See also Facebook, See also sentiment analysis, See also Twitter

echo chamber, 24, 246, 277, 305–306, 308, 311

social media activism, 24, 199–200, 298–303

Sparta, 154, 355

Spearman, Charles, 7

stigmergy, 171–173

fluid, 23, 234–237, 372

frozen, 23, 234–236

human, 9–10, 21, 234, 315, 377, 399

marker-based, 178, 186, 203–204, 232

origins, 23

qualitative, 21, 175–177, 204–207, 236

quantitative, 21, 173–175, 203–204, 371, 376

sematectonic, 177–178, 204–207

Sumer (Mesopotamia), 209

Surowiecki, James, 10, 76

surveillance capitalism, 26, 403, 411, 414, 416

swarm intelligence, 5, 75, See also Swarm problem solving

swarm problem solving

animal, 10, 77–82, 87–90, 93–96, 104–108, 114–118

human, 10, 20–21, 75–77, 82–87, 90–93, 96–104, 108–114, 118–135, 337, 376–377, 379

independence vs information transfer tradeoff, 132

origins, 22, 163–170

speed vs accuracy tradeoff, 129, 158, 163

Tarde, Gabriel, 9

teaching, 23, 68, 291, See also Facilitator

origins, 265–267

team, See problem solving, team

technological determinism, 17

technological platform, See also open source software, See also argument mapping

blog, 58, 60, 68, 288, 334, 351, See also Video; vlog (videoblog)

DebateGraph (argument map), 70, 194

Deliberatorium (argument map), 69–70

discussion forum, 68, 71

idea sharing (Better Reykjavik), 284

Linux, 99, 347, 383

Lua (Foldit), 415

Pol.is (vTaiwan), 321–322, 338

Rousseau, 287–288, 296

UNU platform, 102–104, 129–131

wiki, 58, 66, 291, 316, 320, 331, 352, 393, See also Wikipedia

techno-populism, 288–290, 311, 320–321

textbook, 220, 225, 235, See also Open textbook

trade, premodern, 22, 135, 139–142, 167

transparency, 24–26, 36–38, 61, 73–74, 109, 132, 184, 186, 189, 192, 195, 237, 284–285, 290–298, 315, 317, 320, 324, 338, 359, 364, 369, 371, 392, 411

animals, 93–95

COVID-19 376–377

knowledge construction processes, 58, 60–61, 73

lack of transparency, 402

origins, 151, 153

Twitter, 120, 124, 298, 300, 306, 321, 372–373

unknown others (strangers), 25, 46–47, 119, 136, 325–327, 336, 384, 408, 417

origins, 142–145, 163–164, 167–169

trust, 341–343, 404

US presidential election, 186–188, 305–306

video, See also memes, internet, See also YouTube

clip, 300–301, 307

educational, 65–66

online, 1, 19, 21, 51, 62–66, 180–181, 207, 221, 223, 303, 306, 314, 334, 414–415

quote, 63

vlog (videoblog), 63–64, 298

voting

anonymous, 99, 156–159

best ideas, 48, 283–284, 297, 310

election, 365

elimination, 191–192

majority, 102, 289–290, 311

majority (origins), 155, 157–159

mass, 4, 285–290, 297, 309, 311, 357, 415

meta-, 184

micro-referendum, 360

online rating, 184–186

ostracism (origins prediction vote), 156–157

plurality, 156

proxy, 345

rating, 342–346, 352

Reddit, 184–185, 315

referendum, 83–84, 155, 357, 360

sequential, 102, 356

social media, 346–347

subscribers, 185–186

supermajority, 85–86, 166, 349

transparent, 185

voter competence, 85

voting design, 5, 33

Vygotsky, Lev, 17

Wikipedia, 1, 4, 9, 21, 24, 51, 56–58, 73, 192–194, 207, 224–225, 237, 276, 278, 290, 299, 308, 314–316, 319, 330, 336, 348–349, 352–353, 364, 381, 383, 386, 388–389, 393, 395–396, 399, 409, 415

wisdom of the crowd, 4, 10–15, 76, 90–93, 103, 108, 110–111, 113, 125, 131, 188–189, 277, 288–289, 298, 310, 313, 318, 336, 339

origins, 151, 158, 162, 166

writing

authorship, 223–225

book technology (printing press), 225

clay tablet, 210, 212, 232–233

collective, 56–57, 62, 295–296, 314–316, 331–332

hieroglyphics, 212

invention of, 9, 22, 208–214, 232–233

Million Penguins project, 331

papyrus, 212, 232–233

scribes, 212–214, 232–233

social media, 307

systematic phoneticism, 211–212

YouTube, 62–66, 72–73, 180, 198–199, 277, 306, 321, 333–334, 361–363, 373, 388, 414

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