Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-4rdpn Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-05T07:57:38.332Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Factors associated with early embryonic mortality

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  18 September 2007

Vern L. Christensen
Vern L. Christensen
Affiliation:
Department of Poultry Science, North Carolina State University, Box 7608, Raleigh, NC 27695–7608, USA
Get access

Abstract

This paper describes the patterns of embryonic mortality in poultry species and summarises the various causes of mortality. Descriptions of the morphological stages of development at each of these time periods are given. Data are presented describing factors affecting development at oviposition, egg storage and incubation.

Keywords

Embryonic developmentembryonic growthembryonic survival
Type
Research Article
Information
World's Poultry Science Journal , Volume 57 , Issue 4 , December 2001 , pp. 359 - 372
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2001

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Abplanalp, H. and Kosin, I.L. (1953) Genetic variation of fertility and hatchability in the Broad Breasted Bronze turkey. Poultry Science 32: 321–331CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Alsop, F.M. (1919) The effect of abnormal temperatures upon the developing nervous systems in the chick embryos. Anatomical Record 15: 307–331CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ande, T.B. and Wilson, H.R. (1981) Hatchability of chicken embryos exposed to acute high temperature stress at various ages. Poultry Science 60: 1561–1566CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ar, A. (1990) Egg water movements during incubation. In: Avian Incubation (Tullett, S.G., Ed.), Butterworth-Heinemann, London, pp. 157–173Google Scholar
Arora, K.L. and Kosin, I.L. (1964) Selection for traits in the mature domestic turkey yields correlative responses in embryos. Genetics 50: 232–233Google Scholar
Arora, K.L. and Kosin, I.L. (1966) Changes in the gross morphological appearance of chicken and turkey blastoderms during pre-incubation storage. Poultry Science 45: 819–825CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Arora, K.L. and Matsumoto, L.H. (1968) Early embryo genesis of chicken eggs of different weights. Proceedings of the lowa Acndemy of Science 75: 405–415Google Scholar
Asmundson, V.S. (1947) Time held prior to incubation and hatchability of turkey eggs. Poultry Science 26: 305–307CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Asmundson, V.S. and Macilraith, J.J. (1948) Preincubation tests with turkey eggs. Poultry Science 27: 397–401CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bakst, M.R. and Gupta, S.K. (1997) Preincubation storage of turkey eggs: impact on rate of early embryonic development. British Poultry Science 38: 374–377CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bakst, M., Akuffo, V., Harry, D. and Marini, P. (1997) True fertility and early embryonic mortality in turkeys at onset and after 24 wk of egg production. Poultry Science (Supplement 1) 76: 116Google Scholar
Barott, H.G. (1937) Effect of temperature, humidity and other factors on the hatchability of hen's eggs and on energy metabolism of chick embryos. Technical Bulletin USDA 553, US Department of Agriculture, Washington, DCGoogle Scholar
Becker, W.A. (1964) The storage of White Leghorn hatching eggs in plastic bags. Poultry Science 43: 1109–1112CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Becker, W.A. and Bearse, G.E. (1958) Pre-incubation warming and hatchability of chicken eggs. Poultry Science 37: 944–948CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Becker, W.A., Spencer, J.V. and Swartwood, J.L. (1964) The pre-incubation storage of turkey eggs in closed environments. Poultry Science 43: 1526–1534CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ecker, W.A., Spencer, J.V. and Swartwood, J.L. (1967) Hatchability of eggs held in plastic at two temperatures. Poultry Science 46: 311–314Google Scholar
Becker, W.A., Spencer, J.V. and Swartwood, J.L. (1968) Carbon dioxide during storage of chicken and turkey eggs. Poultry Science 47: 251–258CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bellairs, R. (1971) Developmental Processes in Higher Vertebrates. Logo Press Limited, London, p. 69Google Scholar
Benton, C.E. (1998) Relationship of albumen quality to egg characteristics, hatchability and chick quality. PhD Thesis, North Carolina State University, RaleighGoogle Scholar
Bernier, P.E., Spencer, J.V. and Swartwood, J.L. (1951) The relative effects of inbreeding and outbreeding on reproduction in the domestic fowl. Hilgardia 20: 529–628CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Besulin, V.I. and Sakhatsky, N.I. (1974) The effect of methods of semen collection and artificial insemination on reproductive performance in turkeys. Proceedings and Abstracts of the XV World's Poultry Congress and Exposition pp. 388–389Google Scholar
Bloom, S.E., Muscarella, D.E., Lee, M.Y. and Rachlinski, M. (1998) Cell death in the avian blastoderm: resistance to stress-induced apoptosis and expression of anti-apoptotic genes. Cell Death and Differentiation 5: 529–538CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brunson, C.C. and Godfrey, G.F. (1953) The relationship of egg shape, egg weight, specific gravity and 21 -day incubation weight-loss to hatchability of Broad Breasted Bronze turkey eggs. Poultry Science 32: 846–849CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Buhr, R.J. (1989) Effect on hatchability of tilting instead of turning chicken eggs during incubation. Poultry Science 68: 1603–1611CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Butler, D.E. (1990) Egg handling and storage at the farm and hatchery. In: Avian Incubation, (Tullett, S.G., Ed.), Butterworth-Heinemann, London, pp. 195–203Google Scholar
Byerly, T.C. and Marsden, S.J. (1938) Weight and hatchability in turkey eggs. Poultry Science 17: 298–300CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Byerly, T.C., Helsel, W.G. and Quinn, J.P. (1932) Growth of the chick embryo in relation to its food supply. Journal of Experimental Biology 9: 15–44CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Byng, A.L. and Nash, D. (1962) The effects of egg storage on hatchability. British Poultry Science 3: 81–87CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chattock, A.P. (1925) On the physics of incubation. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society 213B: 97–450Google Scholar
Christensen, V.L. (1978) Physiological factors and hatchability in fowl. PhD Thesis, University of Missouri, ColumbiaGoogle Scholar
Coleman, J.W. and Siegel, P.B. (1966) Selection for body weight at eight weeks of age. 5. Embryonic state at oviposition and its relationship to hatchability. Poultry Science 45: 1003–1011CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Coleman, J.W., Siegel, H.S. and Siegel, P.B. (1964) Embryonic development of two lines of White Rocks. Poultry Science 43: 453–458CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cooney, W.T. (1943) Pre-incubation humidity variation effects on chicken egg hatchability. Oregon Agricultural Experimental Station Bulletin 2Google Scholar
Crittenden, L.B. and Bohren, B.B. (1962) The effects of current egg production, time in production age of pullet and inbreeding on hatchability and hatching time. Poultry Science 41: 426–433CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Davis, G.T. and Beeckler, A.F. (1962) Plastic packaging of eggs. 1. Methods of packaging. Poultry Science 41: 391–397CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Deeming, D.C. (1989) Failure to turn eggs during incubation: development of the area vasculosa and embryonic growth. Journal of Morphology 201: 179–186CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Deuchar, E.M. (1952) The effect of high temperature shock on early morphogenesis in the chick embryo. Journal of Anatomy 86: 443–459Google ScholarPubMed
Dharmarajan, M. (1950) Effect on the embryo of staleness of the sperm at the time of fertilization in the domestic hen. Nature 165: 398CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Edwards, C.L. (1902) The physiological zero and the index of development for the egg of the domestic fowl. American Journal of Physiology 6: 351–397CrossRefGoogle Scholar
El Jack, M.H. and Kalthofen, K.S. (1969) The effect of high holding and housing temperature on the hatchability of chicken eggs. Poultry Science 48: 1013–1018CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Enos, H.L., Graznak, C. and Moreng, R.E. (1974) Aquatic storage for hatching eggs. Poultry Science 53: 1922Google Scholar
Eyal-Giladi, H. (1984) The gradual establishment of cell commitments during the early stages of chick development. Cell Differentiation 14: 245–255CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Eyal-Giladi, H. and Kochav, S. (1976) From cleavage to primitive streak formation: A complementary normal table and a new look at the first stages of the development of the chick. I. General morphology. Developmental Biology 49: 321–337CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eycleshymer, A.C. (1907) Some observations and experiments on the natural and artificial incubation of the egg of the common fowl. Woods Hole Marine Biological Laboratory Biological Bulletin 12: 360–374CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fairchild, B.F. and Christensen, V.L. (1999) Correlation of fertility and early embryonic mortality in young and old turkey flocks. Poultry Science (Supplement 1) 78: 20Google Scholar
Fasenko, G.M. (1992) Factors influencing fertility, preincubation embryo development, and embryo viability in domestic fowl. MS Thesis, University of Alberta, EdmontonGoogle Scholar
Fasenko, G.M., Robinson, F.E. and Armstrong, J.G. (1991) Variability in preincubation embryo development in domestic fowl. 1. Effects of nest holding time and method of egg storage. Poultry Science 70: 1876–1881CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Freeman, B.M. (1967) Some effects of cold on the metabolism of the fowl during the perinatal period. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology 20: 179–193CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Funk, E.M. (1934a) Relation of time of laying to hatchability. Poultry Science 13: 184–187CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Funk, E.M. (1934b) Factors influencing hatchability in the domestic fowl. Missouri Agricultural Experimental Station Bulletin 341Google Scholar
Funk, E.M. and Biellier, H.V. (1944) The minimum temperature for embryonic development in the domestic fowl (Gallus domesticus). Poultry Science 23: 538–540CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Funk, E.M. and Forward, J. (1951) Effect of humidity and turning of eggs before incubation on hatching results. Missouri Agricultural Experimental Station Bulletin 554Google Scholar
Funk, E.M. and Forward, J. (1960) Effect of holding temperature on hatchability of chicken eggs. Missouri Agricultural Experimental Station Bulletin 732Google Scholar
Funk, E.M., Forward, J. and Kempster, H.L. (1950) Effect of holding temperature on hatchability of eggs. Missouri Agricultural Experimental Station Bulletin 539Google Scholar
Gordon, C.D. and Siegel, H.S. (1966) Storage of pedigreed hatching eggs in Cryovac. Poultry Science 45: 1369–1371CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gowe, R.S. (1965) On hatchability of chicken eggs stored in plastic bags flushed with nitrogen gas. Poultry Science 44: 492–495CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gupta, S. and Bakst, M.K. (1993) Turkey embryo development from cleavage through hypoblast formation. Journal of Morphology 217: 313–325CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hamburger, V. and Hamilton, H.L. (1951) A series of normal stages in the development of the chick embryo. Journal of Morphology 88: 49–92CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hays, F.A. (1937) Hatchability as related to season and hour of laying. Poultry Science 16: 106–107CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hays, F.A. and Nicolaides, C. (1934) Variability in development of fresh-laid hen eggs. Poultry Science 13: 74–90CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hulet, R.M., Christensen, V.L. and Bagley, L.G. (1987) Controlled egg weight loss during incubation of turkey eggs. Poultry Science 66: 428–432CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hutt, F.B. and Pilkey, A.M. (1930) Studies in embryonic mortality in the fowl. IV. Comparative mortality rate in eggs laid at different periods of the day and their bearing on theories of the origin of monsters. Poultry Science 9: 282–286Google Scholar
Hutt, F.B. and Pilkey, A.M. (1934) Studies in embryonic mortality in the fowl. V. Relationships between positions of the egg and frequencies of malpositions. Poultry Science 13: 1–13CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Huyghebaert, G.F., Van Wambeke, F. and Degroote, G. (1984) The effect of pH of diluent, number of spermatozoa and storage methods on fertility and hatchability obtained with turkey semen stored 6 and 24 h. Archiv für Geflügelkunde 48: 142–150Google Scholar
Insko, W.M. and Martin, J.H. (1933) Effect of frequent turning on hatchability and distribution of embryo mortality. Poultry Science 12: 282–286CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Insko, W.M. and Martin, J.H. (1935) Mortality of the turkey embryo. Poultry Science 14: 361–364CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Insko, W.M., Maclaury, D.W. and Baute, E.A. (1943) Weight of turkey eggs in relation to hatchability. Bulletin of the Kentucky Agricultural Experimental Station 449Google Scholar
Jackson, H.W. (1912) Poultry experiments. Experiments in incubation. Pennsylvania State College Agriculture Experimental Station Bulletin 120Google Scholar
Kalthofen, K.S. (1969) The effect of air movements on hatchability and weight loss of chicken eggs during artificial incubation. In: The Fertility and Hatchability of the Hen's Egg (Carter, T.C. and Freeman, B.M., Eds), Oliver and Boyd, Edinburgh, pp. 177–189Google Scholar
Kalthofen, K.S. and El Jack, M.H. (1972) Optimum temperatures for short-term storage of 1–7 day old hatching eggs. Archiv für Geflügelkunde 3: 116–120Google Scholar
Kan, J., Mcpherson, B.N. and Gyles, N.R. (1962) Pre-incubation warming of chicken eggs. Poultry Science 41: 1478–1480CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kirk, S., Emmans, G.C., Mcdonald, R. and Arnot, D. (1980) Factors affecting the hatchability of eggs from broiler breeders. British Poultry Science 21: 37–53CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kosin, I.L. (1956) Studies on pre-incubation warming of chicken and turkey eggs. Poultry Science 35: 1384–1392CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kosin, I.L. (1957) A genetic analysis of egg shape in chickens and turkeys. Poultry Science 36: 1134Google Scholar
Kosin, I.L. and Konishi, T. (1973) Pre-incubation storage conditions and their effect on the subsequent livability of chicken embryos: exogenous CO2, plastic bags and extended holding periods as factors. Poultry Science 52: 296–302CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kosin, I.L. and Mun, A.M. (1965) Some factors affecting the biological quality of turkey hatching eggs. Poultry Science 44: 31–39CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Krueger, K.K. (1993) Embryo mortality patterns in commercial crossbred parent stock turkeys. Proceedings of the Third International Symposium on Turkey ReproductionRaleigh, NC pp. 70–74Google Scholar
Kumanov, S. (1948) The influence of some factors upon the fertility and hatchability of hen's eggs. Proceedings of the XVlll World's Poultry Congress pp. 24–28Google Scholar
Lanpauer, W. (1967) The hatchability of chicken eggs as influenced by environment and heredity. Starrs Agricultural Experimental Station, Connecticut, Monograph 1Google Scholar
Leighton, J., Merkow, L. and Locker, M. (1964) Alteration in size of heart of late chick embryos after incubation at varied temperatures. Nature 201: 198–199CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Leighton, A.T., Van Krey, H.P., Moyer, D.D. and Potter, L.M. (1971) Reproductive performance of force-molted turkey breeder hens. Poultry Science 50: 119–126CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lerner, S.P., French, N., Mcintyre, D. and Baxter-Jones, C. (1993) Age-related changes in egg production, fertility, embryonic mortality and hatchability in commercial turkey flocks. Poultry Science 72: 1025–1039CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lunpy, H. (1969) A review of the effects of temperature, humidity, turning and gaseous environment of the incubator on the hatchability of the hen's egg. In: The Fertility and Hatchability of the Hen's Egg (Carter, T.C. and Freeman, B.M. Eds), Oliver and Boyd, Edinburgh, pp. 143–176Google Scholar
Marble, D.R. and Margolf, P.H. (1936) The selection and management of turkey breeders. Poultry Science 15: 225–229CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mather, C.M. and Laughlin, K.F. (1977) Storage of hatching eggs: the effect on early embryonic development. British Poultry Science 18: 597–603CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mather, C.M. and Laughlin, K.F. (1979) Storage of hatching eggs: the interaction between parental age and early embryonic development. British Poultry Science 20: 595–604CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McCartney, M.G. (1962) Heritabilities and correlations for reproductive traits in a random bred population of turkeys. Poultry Science 41: 168–174CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McNally, E.C. and Byerly, T.C. (1936) Variability in the development of embryos of hens' eggs. Poultry Science 15: 280–283CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McNarry, H.W., Bell, A.E. and Moore, C.H. (1960) The growth of inbred and hybrid chicken embryos. Poultry Science 39: 378–384CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Meijerhof, R. (1992) Pre-incubation holding of hatching eggs. World's Poultry Science Journal 48: 57–68CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Meir, M. and Ar, A. (1986) Improving turkey poult quality by correcting incubator humidity to match eggshell conductance. British Poultry Science 28: 337–342CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moore, C.H. (1959) Time interval between successive eggs and its effect on hatchability. Poultry Science 38: 1230–1231Google Scholar
Moreng, R.E. and Bryant, R.L. (1954) Effects of sub-freezing temperatures on the chicken embryo. 1. Survival and subsequent growth up to time of hatch. Poultry Science 33: 855–863CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moreng, R.E. and Bryant, R.L. (1955) The tolerance of the chicken embryo to periods of low temperature exposure. Poultry Science 34: 1342–1348CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Muscarella, D.E., Rachlinski, M.K. and Bloom, S.E. (1998) Expression of cell death regulatory genes and limited apoptosis induction in avian blastodermal cells. Molecular Reproduction and Development 51: 130–1423.0.CO;2-R>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nestor, K.E. (1971) Genetics of growth and reproduction in the turkey. 3. Further selection for increased egg production. Poultry Science 50: 1672–1682CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nestor, K.E. and Noble, D.O. (1995) Influence of selection for increased egg production, body weight and shank width of turkeys on egg composition and the relationship of the egg traits to hatchability. Poultry Science 74: 427–433CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nicolaides, C. (1933) Relation of time of laying and embryonic mortality. Poultry Science 12: 274–276CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nilsen, N.O. (1968) Eye malformations in chick embryos exposed to elevated incubation temperatures. Acta Opthaornoligica 46: 322–328Google ScholarPubMed
Ogasawara, F.X., Lorenz, F.W. and Bennett, E. (1967) Intravaginal and intramagnal insemination of stored chicken semen. Poultry Science 46: 1853–1854Google Scholar
Olsen, M.W. and Byerly, T.C. (1936) Multiple turning and orienting eggs during incubation as they affect hatchability. Poultry Science 15: 88–95CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Olsen, M.W. and Haynes, S.K. (1948) The effect of different holding temperatures on the hatchability of hens' eggs. Poultry Science 27: 420–426CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Olsen, M.W. and Marsden, S.J. (1950) Variability among turkey embryos at twenty-four hours of incubation with respect to hatchability. Poultry Science 29: 414–419CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Phillips, R.W. and Williams, C.S. (1944) External morphology of the turkey during the incubation period. Poultry Science 23: 270–277CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pierce, D. (1974) Production of gaseous N2 by fertilized hens' eggs. Poultry Science 53: 842–844CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Proudfoot, F.G. (1964a) The effects of plastic packaging and other treatments on hatching eggs. Canadian Journal of Animal Science 44: 87–95CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Proudfoot, F.G. (1964b) The effect of nitrogen and other gases on the hatchability of eggs stored in plastic bags. Canadian Journal of Animal Science 44: 120–121CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Proudfoot, F.G. (1965) The effect of film permeability and concentration of nitrogen, oxygen and helium gases on hatching eggs stored in polyethylene and cryovac bags. Poultry Science 44: 636–644CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Proudfoof, F.G. (1967) Advance note on the hatchability of chicken eggs stored small end up. Canadian Journal of Animal Science 47: 142–143Google Scholar
Proudfoot, F.G. (1969) Handling and storage of hatching eggs. In: The Fertility and Hatchability of the Hen's Egg (Carter, T.C. and Freeman, B.M., Eds) Oliver and Boyd, Edinburgh, pp. 127–141Google Scholar
Proudfoot, F.G. (1970) The influences of different preincubation holding temperatures on the hatchability of the chicken egg. Poultry Science 49: 812–813CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Proudfoot, F.G. (1976) Care of hatching eggs before incubation. Canadian Department of Agriculture Publication No. 1573Google Scholar
Raddatz, E., Eyal-Giladi, H. and Kucera, P. (1987) Patterns of oxygen consumption during establishment of cephalocaudal polarity in the early chick embryo. The Journal of Experimerital Zoology Supplemrnt 1: 213–218Google ScholarPubMed
Rahn, H. and Paganelli, C.V. (1990) Energy budget and gas exchange of avian eggs. In: Avian Incubation (Tullett, S.G., Ed.), Butterworth-Heinemann, London pp. 175–193Google Scholar
Reinhart, B.S. and Hurnik, G.I. (1982) Hatching performance of Cryovac enclosed hatching eggs stored in a high humidity environment. Poultry Science 61: 564–566CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Robertson, I.S. (1961) The influence of turning on the hatchability of hen's egg. I. The effect of turning frequency on the pattern of mortality, the incidence of malpositions, malformations and dead embryos with no somatic abnormality. Journal of Agricultural Science 57: 57–69CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Romanoff, A.L. (1939) Effect of temperature shock on development of chick embryo. Proceedings of the VIIth World's Poultry CongressCleveland pp. 184–186Google Scholar
Romanoff, A.L. (1960) The Avian Embryo. The Macinillan Company, New YorkGoogle Scholar
Romanoff, A.L. and Hayward, F.W. (1943) Changes in volume and physical properties of allantoic and amniotic fluids under normal and extreme temperatures. Biology Bulletin 4: 141–147CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Romanoff, A.L. and Romanoff, A.J. (1949) The Avian Egg. John Wiley & Sons Inc., New YorkGoogle Scholar
Scott, H.M. (1933) The effect of age and holding temperature on hatchability of turkey and chicken eggs. Poultry Science 12: 49–54CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Seymour, R.S. and Piiper, J. (1988) Aeration of the shell membranes of avian eggs. Respiration Physiology 71: 101–116CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shook, J.G. (1969) Embryonic abnormalities and egg characteristics in turkeys. PhD Thesis, University of Missouri, ColumbiaGoogle Scholar
Shook, J.G., Stephenson, A.B. and Biellier, H.V. (1971) Heritability estimates of differences in arbitrary and embryonic mortality traits in turkeys. Poultry Science 50: 1255–1260CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Simkiss, K. (1980) Eggshell porosity and the water metabolism of the chick embryo. Journal of Zoology 192: 1–8CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Singal, D.P. and Kosin, I.L. (1969) Induced preincubation aging of the avian egg and subsequent development of the embryo, as revealed by the DNA, RNA and protein level of its spleen. Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine 132: 871–877CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Skoglund, W.C. and Brown, A.W. (1956) Frequency of gathering eggs upon hatchability. Poultry Science 35: 369–371CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smith, K.P. and Bohren, B.B. (1975) Age of pullet effects on hatching time, egg weight and hatchability. Poultry Science 54: 959–963CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Snyder, G.K. and Birchard, G.F. (1982) Water loss and survival in embryos of the domestic chicken. Journal of Experimmtal Zoology 192: 1–8Google Scholar
Spotila, J.R., Weinheimer, C.J. and Paganelli, C.V. (1981) Shell resistance and evaporative water loss from bird eggs: effects of wind speed and egg size. Physiological Zoology 54: 195–202CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Spratt, N.T. (1947) Development in vitro of the early chick blastoderm explanted on yolk and albumen extract saline-agar substrate. Journal of Experimental Zoology 106: 345–366CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stikeleather Swann, G. and Brake, J. (1990) Effect of dry-bulb temperature, relative humidity, and eggshell conductance during days 17 to 21 of incubation on egg weight loss and chick weight. Poultry Science 69: 545–553CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sturkie, F.D. (1986) Avian Physiology. Springer-Verlag, New YorkCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sunde, M.L. and Bird, H.R. (1959) The effect of pullet maturity on fertility and hatchability of eggs. Poultry Science 38: 272–279CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Taylor, L.W., Gunns, C.A. and Moses, B.D. (1933) The effect of current interruption in electrical incubation. California Agricultural Experimental Station Bulletin 550Google Scholar
Taylor, L.W., Sjodin, R.A. and Gunns, C.A. (1956) The gaseous environment of the chick embryo in relation to development and hatchability. 1. Effect of carbon dioxide and oxygen levels during the first four days of incubation upon hatchability. Poultry Science 35: 1206–1215CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tazawa, H. and Rahn, H. (1986) Tolerance of chick embryos to low temperatures in reference to the heart rate. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology 85A: 531–534Google Scholar
Tazawa, H. and Rahn, H. (1987) Temperature and metabolism of chick embryos and hatchlings after prolonged cooling. Journal of Experimental Zoology (Supplement) 1: 105–109Google ScholarPubMed
Tazelaar, M.A. (1929) The effect of a temperature gradient on the early development of the chick. Quarterly lournal of Microscopical Science 72: 419–446Google Scholar
Tullett, S.G. and Board, R.G. (1976) Oxygen flux across the integument of the avian egg during incubation. British Poultry Science 17: 41–45CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tullett, S.G. and Burton, F.G. (1982) Factors affecting the weight and water status of the chick at hatch. British Poultry Science 23: 361–369CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Van Krey, H.P., Ogasawara, F.X. and Lorenz, F.W. (1966) Distribution of spermatozoa in the oviduct and fertility in domestic birds. IV. Fertility of spermatozoa from infundibular glands. Journal of Reproduction and Fertility 11: 257–262CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Van Middlekoop, J.H. (1972) Hatching problems with additional shell deposition produced by broiler mothers. Archiv für Geflügelkunde 36: 63–70Google Scholar
Vince, M.A., Clarke, J.V. and Reader, M.R. (1979) Heart rate response to egg rotation in the domestic fowl embryo. British Poultry Science 20: 247–254CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Warren, D.C., Roff, H.A. and Long, E. (1965) Hatchability of eggs stored in plastic lined egg cases. Poultry Science 44: 1278–1280CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Watt, M., Petitte, J.N. and Etches, R.J. (1993) Early development of the chick embryo. Journal of Morphology 215: 165–182CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Weisbroth, S.H. (1960) The morphological response of gastrulae from three genetic lines of Broad Breasted Bronze turkeys to pre-incubation storage. MS Thesis, Washington State University, PullmanGoogle Scholar
Weisbroth, S.H. and Kosin, I.L. (1966) Gross spatial changes in the turkey blastoderm following extended pre-incubation storage. Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine 121: 795–800CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Whittow, G.C. (1986) Regulation of body temperature. In: Avian Physiology, 4th Edition (Sturkie, P.D., Ed.), Springer-Verlag, New York, pp. 221–268CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wilson, H.R. (1990) Physiological requirements of the developing embryo: temperature and turning. In: Avian Incubation (Tullett, S.G., Ed.), Butterworth-Heinemann, London, pp. 143–156Google Scholar
Wilson, W.O. and Johnson, L.E. (1946) The inheritance of egg production and hatchability in turkeys. Poultry Science 25: 278–284CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Woodard, A.E., Ogasawara, F.X., Abplanalp, H. and Marquez, B. (1976) Effect of semen dose, frequency of insemination, age and productivity of the male on duration and levels of fertility and hatchability in the turkey. Poultry Science 55: 1367–1372CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed