Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-gbm5v Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-26T21:33:11.413Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Enhancement of meat production by environmental manipulations in embryo and young broilers

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  01 September 2006

O. HALEVY ,
S. YAHAV  and
I. ROZENBOIM
O. HALEVY*
Affiliation:
Department of Animal Sciences, Faculty of Agricultural, Food and Environmental Quality Sciences, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Rehovot76100, Israel;
S. YAHAV
Affiliation:
Institute of Animal Sciences, ARO, The Volcani Center, Beit Dagan, Israel
I. ROZENBOIM
Affiliation:
Department of Animal Sciences, Faculty of Agricultural, Food and Environmental Quality Sciences, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Rehovot76100, Israel;
*
*Corresponding author: [email protected]
Get access

Abstract

Enhancing meat production by genetic selection for growth has already produced 5-week-old broilers weighing more than 2 kg. As growth performance characteristics continue to improve and the time it takes to achieve market size decreases, the period of embryonic development becomes a greater proportion of the bird's life. Therefore, in parallel to genetic selection, other approaches, such as environmental manipulations in the embryo or in the early days posthatch, are becoming more relevant for increasing muscle growth and meat production.

Recently, we have shown that nutritional treatments, i.e., providing feed immediately posthatch, or environmental treatments, such as heat conditioning or monochromatic green-light illumination during the first days posthatch, increase muscle growth and breast muscle weight at marketing day. In all cases, the increase in muscle growth was due to changes at the cellular and molecular levels leading to increased satellite cell proliferation and differentiation.

The significant effects on muscle growth resulting from the treatments in the first days posthatch raised the hypothesis that muscle growth could be affected during the embryonic development. In experiments in which eggs were illuminated under monochromatic green light from embryonic day 5 (E5), there was a positive effect on embryo development and posthatch muscle growth. Further studies revealed that this enhanced muscle weight was due to increased satellite cell number and fiber synchronization during early days posthatch. Thermal manipulation at 38.5°C from E16 to E18 for 3 h/day had a delayed effect on satellite-cell proliferation and differentiation, resulting in enhanced hypertrophy of myofibers at market age.

Keywords

skeletal muscle growthmyoblastssatellite cellsmeat production, broilersembryogenesis
Type
Review Article
Information
World's Poultry Science Journal , Volume 62 , Issue 3 , September 2006 , pp. 485 - 497
Copyright
Copyright © World's Poultry Science Association 2006

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

ADAMS, G.R., HADDAD, F. and BALDWIN, K.M. (1999) Time course of changes in markers of myogenesis in overloaded rat skeletal muscles. Journal of Applied Physiology 87: 1705–1712.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
ADAMS, G.R., McCUE, S.A., BODELL, P.W., ZENG, M. and BALDWIN, K.M. (2000) Effects of spaceflight and thyroid deficiency on hindlimb development. I. Muscle mass and IGF-I expression. Journal of Applied Physiology 88: 894–903.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
ADAMS, G.R., CHENG, D.C., HADDAD, F. and BALDWIN, K.M. (2004) Skeletal muscle hypertrophy in response to isometric, lengthening, and shortening training bouts of equivalent duration. Journal of Applied Physiology 96: 1613–1618.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
ALLEN, R.E. and BOXHORN, L.K. (1989) Regulation of skeletal muscle satellite cell proliferation and differentiation by transforming growth factor-beta, insulin like growth factor I, and fibroblast growth factor. Journal of Cellular Physiology 138: 311–315.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
ALTERIO, J., COURTOIS, Y., ROBELIN, J., BECHET, D. and MARTELLY, I. (1990) Acidic and basic fibroblast growth factor mRNAS are expressed by skeletal muscle satellite cells. Biochemical Biophysical Research Communications 166: 1205–1212.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
ANDREWS, D.K. and ZIMMERMANN, N.G. (1990) A comparison of energy efficient broiler house lighting sources and photoperiods. Poultry Science 69: 1471–1479.Google Scholar
ARJONA, A.A., DENBOW, D.M. and WEAVER, W.D. Jr. (1988) Effect of heat stress early in life on mortality of broilers exposed to high environmental temperatures just prior to marketing. Poultry Science 67: 226–231.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
ARMAND, O., BOUTINEAU, A.M., MAUGER, A., PAUTOU, M.P. and KIENY, M. (1983) Origin of satellite cells in avian skeletal muscle. Archive Anatomy and Microscopy Morphology Experiments 72: 163–181.Google Scholar
BARTON-DAVIS, E.R., SHOTURMA, D.I. and SWEENEY, H.L. (1999) Contribution of satellite cells to IGF-I induced hypertrophy of skeletal muscle. Acta Physiologica Scandinavica 167: 301–305.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
BRAND-SABERI, B. (2005) Genetic and epigenetic control of skeletal muscle development. Annals of Anatomy 187: 199–207.Google Scholar
BEN-YAIR, R. and KALCHEIM, C. (2005) Lineage analysis of the avian dermomyotome sheet reveals the existence of single cells with both dermal and muscle progenitor fates. Development 132: 689–701.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
BUCKINGHAM, M. (1992) Making muscle in mammals. Trends in Genetics 8: 144–148.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
CAMPION, D.R. (1984) The muscle satellite cell: a review. International Review of Cytology 87: 225–251.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
CARNAC, G., ALBAGLI-CURIEL, O., VANDROMME, M., PINSET, C., MONTARRAS, D., LAUDET, V. and BONNIEU, A. (1992) 3,5,3’-triodothyronine positively regulates both MyoD1 gene transcription and terminal differentiation in C2 myoblasts. Molecular Endocrinology 6: 1185–1194.Google Scholar
CHRIST, B. and BRAND-SABERI, B. (2002) Limb muscle development. International Journal of Developmental Biology 46: 905–914.Google Scholar
COLEMAN, M.E., DeMAYO, F., YIN, K.C., LEE, H.M., GESKE, R., MONTGOMERY, C. and SCHWARTZ, R.J. (1995) Myogenic vector expression of insulin-like growth factor I stimulates muscle cell differentiation and myofiber hypertrophy in transgenic mice. Journal of Biological Chemistry 270: 12109–12116.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
COLEMAN, M.A. and McDANIEL, G.R. (1976) Light alterated changes in the embryonic age versus incubation age of White Leghorn embryos. Poultry Science 55: 2483–2485.Google Scholar
COLEMAN, M.A. and McNABB, R.A. (1975) Photoacceleration of embryonic development in depigmented Japanese quail eggs. Poultry Science 54: 1849–1855.Google Scholar
COLLIN, A., PICARD, M. and YAHAV, S. (2005) The effect of duration of thermal manipulation during broiler chick embryogenesis on body weight and body temperature of post-hatched chicks. Animal Research 54: 105–111.Google Scholar
COLLINS, C.A., OLSEN, I., ZAMMIT, P.S., HESLOP, L., PETRIE, A., PARTRIDGE, T.A. and MORGAN, J.E. (2005) Stem cell function, self-renewal, and behavioral heterogeneity of cells from the adult muscle satellite cell niche. Cell 122: 289–301.Google Scholar
CONBOY, I.M. and RANDO, T.A. (2002) The regulation of Notch signaling controls satellite cell activation and cell fate determination in postnatal myogenesis. Developmental Cell 3: 397–409.Google Scholar
COOPER, J.B. (1972) Effect of light during incubation on hatchability of turkey eggs. Poultry Science 51: 1105–1108.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
CORNELISON, D.D.W. and WOLD, B. (1997) Single-cell analysis of regulatory gene expression in quiescent and activated mouse skeletal muscle satellite cells. Developmental Biology 191: 270–283.Google Scholar
COSSU, G. and MOLINARO, M. (1987) Cell heterogeneity in the myogenic lineage. Current Topics in Developmental Biology 23: 185–208.Google Scholar
DE ANGELIS, L., BERGHELLA, L., COLETTA, M., LATTANZI, L., ZANCHI, M., CUSELLA-DE ANGELIS, M.G., PONZETTO, C. and COSSU, G. (1999) Skeletal myogenic progenitors originating from embryonic dorsal aorta coexpress endothelial and myogenic markers and contribute to postnatal muscle growth and regeneration. Journal of Cell Biology 147: 869–878.Google Scholar
DECUYPERE, E., DEWIL, E. and KUHN, E.R. (1992) The hatching process and the role of hormones. In: Avian Incubation. (Tullett, S.G.ed.), pp 239–255. Butterworth-Heinemann, London, UK.Google Scholar
DeVOL, D.L., ROTWEIN, P., SADOW, J.L., NOVAKOFSKI, J. and BECHTEL, P.J. (1990) Activation of insulin-like growth factor gene expression during work-induced skeletal muscle growth. American Journal of Physiology 259: E89–E95.Google ScholarPubMed
DUCLOS, M.J., CHEVALIER, B., REMIGNON, H., RICARD, F.H., GODDARD, C. and SIMON, J. (1996) Divergent selection for high or low growth rate modifies the response of muscle cells to serum or insulin-like growth factor-I in vitro. Growth Regulation 6: 176–184.Google Scholar
FELDMAN, J.L. and STOCKDALE, F.E. (1992) Temporal appearance of satellite cells during myogenesis. Developmental Biology 153: 217–226.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
FLORINI, J.R., EWTON, D.Z. and COOLICAN, S.A. (1996) Growth hormone and the insulin-like growth factor system in myogenesis. Endocrine Reviews 17: 481–517.Google Scholar
FERRARI, G., CUSELLA-DE ANGELIS, G., COLETTA, M., PAOLUCCI, E., STORNAIUOLO, A., COSSU, G. and MAVILIO, F. (1998) Muscle regeneration by bone marrow-derived myogenic progenitors. Science 279: 1528–1530.Google Scholar
GAL-LEVI, R., LESHEM, Y., AOKI, S., NAKAMURA, T. and HALEVY, O. (1998) Hepatocyte growth factor plays a dual role in regulating skeletal muscle satellite cell proliferation and differentiation. Biochimiya Biophysica Acta 1402: 39–51.Google Scholar
GROBET, L., MARTIN, L.J., PONCELET, D., PIROTTIIN, D., BROUWERS, B., RIQUET, J., SCHOEBERLEIN, A., DUNNER, S., MENISSIER, F., MASSABANDA, J., FRIES, R., HANSET, R. and GEORGES, M. (1997) Adeletion in the bovine myostatin gene causes the double-muscled phenotype in cattle. Nature Genetics 17: 71–74.Google Scholar
GROS, J., MANCEAU, M., THOME', V. and MARCELLE, C. (2005) A common somitic origin for embryonic muscle progenitors and satellite cells. Nature 435: 954–958.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
GHATPANDE, A., GHATPANDE, S. and KHAN, M.Z. (1995) Effect of different intensities of fluorescent light on the early development of chick embryos in ovo. Cellular and Molecular Biology Research 41: 613–621.Google Scholar
GUSSONI, E., SONEOKA, Y., STRICKLAND, C.D., BUZNEY, E.A., KHAN, M.K., FLINT, A.F., KUNKEL, L.M. and MULLIGAN, R.C. (1999) Dystrophin expression in the mdx mouse restored by stem cell transplantation. Nature 401: 390–394.Google Scholar
HALEVY, O., BIRAN, I. and ROZENBOIM, I. (1998) Various light source treatments affect body and skeletal muscle growth by affecting skeletal muscle satellite cell proliferation in broilers. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology 120: 317–323.Google Scholar
HALEVY, O., HODIK, V. and METT, A. (1996) The effect of growth hormone on avian skeletal muscle satellite cell proliferation and differentiation. General and Comparative Endocrinology 101: 43–52.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
HALEVY, O., KRISPIN, A., LESHEM, Y., MCMURTRY, J.P. and YAHAV, S. (2001) Early-age heat exposure affects skeletal muscle satellite cell proliferation and differentiation in chicks. American Journal of Physiology 281: R302–R309.Google Scholar
HALEVY, O., LAVI, M. and YAHAV, S. (2006b) Enhancement of meat production by thermal manipulations during embryogenesis of broilers. World's Poultry Science Journal. Accepted for publication.Google Scholar
HALEVY, O., MONSONEGO, E., MARCELLE, C., HODIK, V., METT, A. and PINES, M. (1994) A new avian fibroblast growth factor receptor in myogenic and chondrogenic cell differentiation. Experimental Cell Research 212: 278–284.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
HALEVY, O., PIESTUN, Y., ALLOUTH, M., ROSSER, B., RINKEVITCH, Y., RESHEF, R., ROZENBOIM, I., WLEKLINSKI, M. and YABLONKA-REUVENI, Z. (2004) The pattern of Pax-7 expression during myogenesis in the posthatch chicken establishes a model for satellite cell differentiation and renewal. Developmental Dynamics 231: 489–502.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
HALEVY, O., PIESTUN, Y., ROZENBOIM, I. and YABLONKA-REUVENI, Z. (2006a) In-ovo exposure to monochromatic green light promotes skeletal muscle cell proliferation and affects myofiber growth in posthatch chicks. American Journal of Physiology 290: R1062–R1070.Google Scholar
HARTLEY, R.S., BANDMAN, E. and YABLONKA-REUVENI, Z. (1992) Skeletal muscle satellite cells appear during late chicken embryogenesis. Developmental Biology 153: 206–216.Google Scholar
HAVENSTEIN, G.B., FERKET, P.R. and QURESHI, M.A. (2003) Carcass composition and yield of 1957 versus 2001 broilers when fed representative 1957 and 2001 broiler diets. Poultry Science 82: 1509–1518.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
HAWKE, T.J. and GARRY, D.J. (2001) Myogenic satellite cells: physiology to molecular biology. Journal of Applied Biology 91: 534–551.Google Scholar
HODIK, V., METT, M. and HALEVY, O. (1997) Mutual effects of growth hormone and growth factors on chicken satellite cells. General and Comparative Endocrinology 108: 161–170.Google Scholar
JOULIA, D., BERNARDI, H., GARANDEL, V., RABENOELINA, F., VERNUS, B. and CABELLO, G. (2003) Mechanisms involved in the inhibition of myoblast proliferation and differentiation by myostatin. Experimental Cell Research 286: 263–275.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
KAMEDA, Y., UDATSU, K., HORINO, M. and TAGAWA, T. (1986) Localization and development of immunoreactive triiodothyronine in thyroid glands of dogs and chickens. Anatomical Records 214: 168–176.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
KIKUCHI, K., BUONOMO, F.C., KAJIMOTO, Y. and ROTWEIN, P. (1991) Expression of insulin-like growth factor-I during chicken development. Endocrinology 128: 1323–1328.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
LANGLEY, B., THOMAS, M., BISHOP, A., SHARMA, M., GILMOUR, S. and KAMBADUR, R. (2002) Myostatin inhibits myoblast differentiation by down-regulating MyoD expression. Journal of Biological Chemistry 277: 49831–49840.Google Scholar
LEWIS, P.D. and MORRIS, T.R. (1998) Responses of domestic poultry to various light sources. World's Poultry Science Journal 54: 7–25.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
LEWIS, P.D. and MORRIS, T.R. (2000) Poultry and colored light. World's Poultry Science Journal 56: 189–207.Google Scholar
MALLON, D.L. and BETZ, T.W. (1982) The effects of hydrocortisone and thyroxine treatments on duodenal morphology, alkaline phosphatase and sugar transport in chicken (Gallus Domesticus) embryos. Canadian Journal of Zoology 60: 3447–3455.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
MARCHAL, S., CASSAR-MALEK, I., PONS, F., WRUTNIAK, C. and CABELLO, G. (1993) Tiiodothyronine influences quail myoblast proliferation and differentiation. Biology of the Cell 78: 191–197.Google Scholar
MAURO, A. (1961) Satellite cells of skeletal muscle fibers. Journal of Biophysics and Biochemistry Cytology 9: 493–495.Google Scholar
McCROSKERY, S., THOMAS, M., MAXWELL, L., SHARMA, M. and KAMBADUR, R. (2003) Myostatin negatively regulates satellite cell activation and self-renewal. Journal of Cell Biology 162: 1135–1147.Google Scholar
McFARLAND, D.C., PESALL, J.E., GILKERSON, K.K. and FERRIN, N.H. (1995) The response of growth factors of cultured satellite cells derived from turkeys having different growth rates. Cytobiosis 82: 229–238.Google Scholar
MERLY, F., MAGRAS-RESCH, C., ROUAUD, T., FONTAINE-PERUS, J. and GARDAHAUT, M.F. (1998) Comparative analysis of satellite cell properties in heavy- and lightweight strains of turkey. Journal of Muscle Research and Cell Motility 19: 257–270.Google Scholar
MOSS, F.P. and LeBLOND, C.P. (1971) Satellite cells as the source of nuclei in muscles of growing rats. Anatomy Records 170: 421–436.Google Scholar
MOZDZIAK, P.E., SCHULTZ, E. and CASSENS, R.G. (1997) Myonuclear accretion is a major determinant of avian skeletal muscle growth. American Journal of Physiology 272: C565–C571.Google Scholar
MUSARO, A., McCULLAGH, K. and PAUL, A., HOUGHTON, L., DOBROWOLNY, G., MOLINARO, M., BARTON, E.R., SWEENEY, H.L. and ROSENTHAL, N. (2001) Localized IGF-I transgene expression sustains hypertrophy and regeneration in senescent skeletal muscle. Nature Genetics 27: 195–200.Google Scholar
NAYA, F.S. and OLSON, E. (1999) MEF2: a transcriptional target for signaling pathways controlling skeletal muscle growth and differentiation. Current Opinion Cell Biology 11: 683–688.Google Scholar
NICHELMANN, M. and TZSCHENTKE, B. (2002) Ontogeny of thermoregulation in precocial birds. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology A 131: 751–763.Google Scholar
OLGUIN, H.C. and OLWIN, B.B. (2004) Pax-7 up-regulation inhibits myogenesis and cell cycle progression in satellite cells: a potential mechanism for self-renewal. Developmental Biology 275: 375–388.Google Scholar
OLSON, E.N. (1990) MyoD family: a paradigm for development? Genes and Development 4: 1454–1461.Google Scholar
OUSTANINA, S., HAUSE, G. and BRAUN, T. (2004) Pax7 directs postnatal renewal and propagation of myogenic satellite cells but not their specification. EMBO Journal 23: 3430–3439.Google Scholar
PATAPOUTIAN, A., YOON, J.K., MINER, J.H., WANG, S., STARK, K. and WOLD, B. (1995) Disruption of the mouse MRF4 gene identifies multiple waves in the myotome. Development 121: 3347–3358.Google Scholar
PAUL, A.C. and ROSENTHAL, N. (2002) Different modes of hypertrophy in skeletal muscle fibers. Journal of Cell Biology 156: 751–760.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
PIESTUN, Y., YAHAV, S. and HALEVY, O. (2005) Heating manipulation affects satellite cell proliferation and increases muscle growth potential in broilers. Page 38 in The Second Combined Workshop Fundamental Physiology of the European Working Group of Physiology and Perinatal Development in Poultry, Berlin, Germany.Google Scholar
PHOGAT, S.B., AGGARWAL, C.K. and COOPRA, S.K. (1985) Effect of red and green lights on growth of quail. Indian Journal of Poultry Science 20: 126–128.Google Scholar
RAWLS, A., MORRIS, J.H., RUDNICKI, M., BRAUN, T., ARNOLD, H.H., KLEIN, W.H. and OLSON, E.N. (1995) Myogenin's functions do not overlap with those of MyoD of Myf-5 during mouse embryogenesis. Developmental Biology 172: 37–50.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
RELAIX, F., ROCANCOURT, D., MANSOURI, A. and BUCKINGHAM, M. (2005) A Pax3/Pax7-dependent population of skeletal muscle progenitor cells. Nature 435: 948–953.Google Scholar
REYNES, G.E., VENKEN, K., MORREALE DE ESCOBAR, G., KUHN, E.R. and DARRAS, V.M. (2003) Dynamics and regulation of intracellular thyroid hormone concentrations in embryonic chicken liver, kidney, brain and blood. General and Comparative Endocrinology 134: 80–87.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
ROMANOFF, A.L. (1960) The Avian Embryo: Structural and Functional Development. New York: MacMillan.Google Scholar
ROZENBOIM, I., BIRAN, I., CHAISEHA, Y., YAHAV, S., ROSENSTRAUCH, A., SKLAN, D. and HALEVY, O. (2004a) The effect of a green and blue monochromatic light combination on broiler growth and development. Poultry Science 83: 842–845.Google Scholar
ROZENBOIM, I., BIRAN, I., UNI, Z., ROBINZON, B. and HALEVY, O. (1999) The effect of monochromatic light on broiler growth and development. Poultry Science 78: 135–138.Google Scholar
ROZENBOIM, I., HUISINGA, R., HALEVY, O. and EL HALAWANI, M.E. (2003) Effect of embryonic photostimulation on the posthatch growth of turkey poults. Poultry Science 82: 1181–1187.Google Scholar
ROZENBOIM, I., PIESTUN, Y., MOBARKEY, N., BARAK, M., HOYZMAN, A. and HALEVY, O. (2004b) Monochromatic light stimuli during embryogenesis enhance embryo development and posthatch growth. Poultry Science 83: 1413–1419.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
RUDNICKI, M.A., SCHNEGELSBERG, P.N., STEAD, R.H., BRAUN, T., ARNOLD, H.H. and JAENISCH, R. (1993) MyoD or Myf-5 is required for the formation of skeletal muscle. Cell 75: 1351–1359.Google Scholar
SADOWSKI, C.L., WHEELER, T.T., WANG, L.H. and SADOWSKI, H.B. (2001) GH regulation of IGF-I and suppressor of cytokine signaling gene expression in C2C12 skeletal muscle cells. Endocrinology 142: 3890–3900.Google Scholar
SCHULTZ, E., GIBSON, M.C. and CHAMPION, T. (1978) Satellite cells are mitotically quiescent in mature mouse muscle: an EM and radioautographic study. Journal of Experimental Zoology 206: 451–456.Google Scholar
SCHULTZ, E. and McCORMICK, K.M. (1994) Skeletal muscle satellite cells. Reviews of Physiology, Biochemistry and Pharmacology 123: 213–257.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
SEALE, P., SABOURIN, L.A., GIRGIS-GABARDO, A., MANSOURI, A., GRUSS, P. and RUDNICKI, M.A. (2000) Pax7 is required for the specification of myogenic satellite cells. Cell 102: 777–786.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
SHEEHAN, S.M., TATSUMY, R., TEMM-GROVE, C.J. and ALLEN, R.E. (2002) HGF is an autocrine growth factor for skeletal muscle satellite cells in vitro. Muscle and Nerve 23: 239–245.3.0.CO;2-U>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
SHAFEY, T.M. and AL-MOHSEN, T.H. (2002) Embryonic growth, hatching time and hatchability performance of meat breeder eggs incubated under continuous green light. Asian-Australian Journal of Animal Science 15: 1702–1707.Google Scholar
SHAVLAKADZE, T., WINN, N., ROSENTHAL, N. and GROUNDS, M.D. (2005) Reconciling data from transgenic mice that overexpress IGF-I specifically in skeletal muscle. Growth Hormone and IGF Research 15: 4–18.Google Scholar
SHUTZE, J.V., LAUBER, J.K., KATO, M. and WILSON, W.O. (1962) Influence of incandescent and coloured light on chicken embryos during incubation. Nature 196: 594–595.Google Scholar
SIEGEL, P.B., ISAKSON, S.T., COLEMAN, F.N. and HUFFMAN, B.J. (1969) Photoacceleration of development in chick embryo. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology 28: 753–758.Google Scholar
SISSON, T.R. and WICKLER, M. (1974) Transmission of light through living tissues. Pediatric Research 7: 316–318.Google Scholar
STOCKDALE, F.E. (1992) Myogenic cell lineages. Developmental Biology 154: 284–298.Google Scholar
THOMAS, M., LANGLEY, B., BERRY, C., SHARMA, M., KIRK, S., BASS, J. and KAMBADUR, R. (2000) Myostatin, a negative regulator of muscle growth, functions by inhibiting myoblast proliferation. Journal of Biological Chemistry 275: 40235–40243.Google Scholar
THOMMES, R.C., CLARCK, N.B., MOK, L.L. and MALONE, S. (1984) Hypothalmo-adenohypophysealthyroid interrelationships in the chick embryo. V. The effects of thyroidectomy on T4 levels in blood plasma. General and Compartive Endocrinology 54: 324–327.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
TREMBLAY, P., DIETRICH, S., MERICSKAY, M., SCHUBERT, F.R., LI, Z. and PAULIN, D. (1998) A crucial role for Pax3 in the development of the hypaxial musculature and the long-range migration of muscle precursors. Developmental Biology 203: 49–61.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
VALDEZ, M.R., RICHARDSON, J.A., KLEIN, W.H. and OLSON, E.N. (2000) Failure of Myf5 to support myogenic differentiation without myogenin, MyoD, and MRF4. Developmental Biology 219: 287–298.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
WABECK, C.J. and SKOGLUND, W.C. (1974) Influence of radiant energy from fluorescent light sources on growth, mortality, and feed conversion of broilers. Poultry Science 53: 2055–2059.Google Scholar
WALTER, J.H. and VOITLE, R.A. (1972) Effect of photoperiod during incubation on embryonic and post embryonic development of broilers. Poultry Science 51: 1122–1126.Google Scholar
WALTER, J.H. and VOITLE, R.A. (1973) Effects of photoperiod during incubation on embryonic and post embryonic development of quail and chickens. British Poultry Science 14: 533–540.Google Scholar
YABLONKA-REUVENI, Z. (2004) Isolation and characterization of stem cells from adult skeletal muscle. In: Handbook of Stem Cells (Lanza, R.P., Blau, H.B., Melton, D.A., Moore, M.A.S., Thomas, E.D., Verfaillie, C.M., Weissman, I.L. and West, M.D. eds), pp 571–580. San Diego, CA: Elsevier Academic Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
YABLONKA-REUVENI, Z. and PATERSON, B. (2001) MyoD and myogenin expression patterns in cultures of fetal and adult chicken myoblasts. Journal of Histochemistry and Cytochemistry 49: 455–462.Google Scholar
YABLONKA-REUVENI, Z. and SEIFERT, R.A. (1993) Proliferation of chicken myoblasts is regulated by specific isoforms of platelet-derived growth factor: evidence for differences between myoblasts from mid and late stages of embryogenesis. Developmental Biology 156: 307–318.Google Scholar
YAHAV, S. and HURWITZ, S. (1996) Induction of thermotolerance in male broiler chickens by temperature conditioning at early age. Poultry Science 75: 402–406.Google Scholar
YAHAV, S. and PLAVNIK, Y. (1999) The effect of an early age thermal conditioning and food restriction on performance and thermotolerance of male broiler chickens. British Poultry Science 40: 120–126.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
YAHAV, S. and McMURTRY, J. (2001) Thermotolerance acquisition in broiler chickens by temperature conditioning early in life-the effect of timing and ambient temperature. Poultry Science 80: 1662–1666.Google Scholar
ZAMMIT, P.S., GOLDING, J.P., NAGATA, Y., HUDON, V., PARTRIDGE, T.A. and BEAUCHAMP, J.R. (2004) Muscle satellite cells adopt divergent fates: a mechanism for self-renewal? Journal of Cell Biology 166: 347–357.Google Scholar
ZIMMERMANN, N.G. (1988) Broiler performance when reared under various light sources. Poultry Science 67: 43–51.Google Scholar