Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-q99xh Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-25T08:04:48.204Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Chlamydial infections of poultry and human health

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  18 September 2007

H. Salisch ,
Kirstin Von Malottki ,
M. Ryll  and
K.-H. Hinz
H. Salisch
Affiliation:
Clinic for Poultry, Hannover School of Veterinary Medicine, Bünteweg 17, 30559 Hannover, Germany
Kirstin Von Malottki
Affiliation:
Clinic for Poultry, Hannover School of Veterinary Medicine, Bünteweg 17, 30559 Hannover, Germany
M. Ryll
Affiliation:
Clinic for Poultry, Hannover School of Veterinary Medicine, Bünteweg 17, 30559 Hannover, Germany
K.-H. Hinz
Affiliation:
Clinic for Poultry, Hannover School of Veterinary Medicine, Bünteweg 17, 30559 Hannover, Germany
Get access

Abstract

Chlamydiosis of domestic poultry (chickens, pheasants, guinea fowl, quail, ducks, geese, and turkeys) is reviewed with emphasis on psittacosis as an occupational disease. The article covers literature from 1940 to 1994. The potential risks of transmission of C. psittaci from poultry to man are discussed, and clinical diseases caused by C. psittaci infection in man are briefly reviewed. Ducks, sometimes without clinical signs, and turkey flocks usually conspicuous for ornithosis during transport or processing, are the most likely sources for poultry transmitted psittacosis. Isolation of the chlamydia, both from man and birds, is the best method for confirmation of the diagnosis. In humans an easier, but less reliable, way is the demonstration of a significant titre rise in properly spaced paired serum samples combined with clinical symptoms. False positive results can occur with the complement fixation test (CFT) commonly used. It has to be remembered that there is a high prevalence of antibodies to different Chlamydia spp. in the population, and that the genus-specific antigen used in the CFT recognizes antibodies to all these pathogens and antibodies resulting from prior infections. More specific serological tests should be favoured, and highly sensitive and specific DNA detection methods, currently mostly used in research, will probably replace tests like the CFT. Case reports of outbreaks of the disease especially among poultry plant workers are compared. With awareness of the problem, employees knowing the clinical signs of psittacosis both in poultry and man, modern abattoir machinery, good sanitary conditions, and early treatment with effective drugs when necessary, the disease risks can be minimized.

Keywords

Chlamydia psittacidiseasehuman healthornithosispoultry
Type
Research Article
Information
World's Poultry Science Journal , Volume 52 , Issue 3 , November 1996 , pp. 279 - 308
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 1996

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Aitken, I.D., Clarkson, M.J. and Linklater, K. (1990) Enzootic abortion of ewes. Veterinary Record 126: 136–138CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Alexander, M., Putzmann, L., Rühl, U. and Rumpf, S. (1973) Untersuchungen über den Durchseuchungsgrad an Herpes simplex, Ornithose und Toxoplasmose bei der Berliner Bevölkerung. Verhandlungen der Deutschen Gesellschaft für Innere Medizin 79: 1427–1429CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Al-Kawi, M.Z. and Madkour, M.M. (1986) Brain stem encephalitis in ornithosis [letter]. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry 49: 603–604CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Andersen, A.A. (1987) Comparison of avian Chlamydia psittaci isolates from psittacine and non-psittacine birds by restriction endonuclease analysis. Abstracts of the Annual Meeting of the American Society of Microbiology 87: 97Google Scholar
Andersen, A.A. (1990) The use of serovar-specific monoclonal antibodies for the serotyping of Chlamydia psittaci isolates In: Chlamydial Infections (Eds Bowie, W. R. et al. ), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 374–377Google Scholar
Andersen, A.A. (1991) Comparison of avian Chlamydia psittaci isolates by restriction endonuclease analysis and serovar-specific monoclonal antibodies. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 29: 244–249CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Andersen, A.A. and Van Deusen, R.A. (1988) Production and partial characterization of monoclonal antibodies to four chlamydia psittaci isolates. Infection and Immunity 56: 2075–2079CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Andersen, A.A. and Tappe, J.P. Jr. (1989a) Chlamydiosis. In: A Laboratory Manual for the Isolation and Identification of Avian Pathogens, 3rd edn (Eds Purchase, H.G., Arp, L.H., Domermuth, C.H. and Pearson, J.E.), Kendall/ Hunt, Dubuque, Iowa, pp. 63–69Google Scholar
Andersen, A.A. and Tappe, J.P. Jr. (1989b) Genetic, immunologic, and pathologic characterization of avian chlamydial strains. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 195: 1512–1516Google ScholarPubMed
Anderson, D.C., Stoesz, P.A. and Kaufmann, A.F. (1978) Psittacosis outbreak in employees of a turkey processing plant. American Journal of Epidemiology 107: 140–148CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Anderson, J.P. (1973) Ornithosis in Somerset. Experiences in the South Somerset clinical area 1964–1971. Postgraduate Medical Journal 49: 533–534CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Anderson, J.P. and Bridgwater, F.A.J. (1968) Ornithosis in a chest clinical practice. British Journal of Diseases of the Chest 62: 155–166CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Anderson, I.E. (1987) Comparison of some ovine Chlamydia psittaci isolates by indirect immunofluorescence. Veterinary Microbiology 13: 69–74CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Anderson, I.E., Tan, T.W., Jones, G.E. and Herring, A.J. (1990) Efficacy against ovine enzootic abortion of an experimental vaccine containing purified elementary bodies of Chlamydia psittaci. Veterinary Microbiology 24: 21–27CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Andral, B. and Louzis, C. (1982) Rhinotracheitis in turkeys in Brittany. Bulletin d'Information des Laboratoires des Services Vétérinaires 7: 33–43Google Scholar
Andral, B., Louzis, C., Trap, D., Newman, J.A., Bennejean, G. and Gaumont, R. (1985a) Respiratory disease (rhinotracheitis) in turkeys in Brittany, France, 1981–1982. I. Field observations and serology. Avian Diseases 29: 26–34CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Andral, B., Louzis, C., Edlinger, E., Newman, J.A., Toquin, D. and Bennejean, G. (1985b) Respiratory disease (rhinotracheitis) in turkeys in Brittany, France, 1981–1982. II. Laboratory findings. Avian Diseases 29: 35–42CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Andral, B., Metz, M., Toquin, D., Lecoz, J. and Newman, J.A. (1985c) Respiratory disease (rhinotracheitis) in turkeys in Brittany, France. III. Interaction of multiple infecting agents. Avian Diseases 29: 233–243CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Andral, B., Louzis, C. and Gourreau, J.M. (1989) Importance of chlamydiosis among diseases of French poultry (turkeys, guinea fowls, fowls and ducks). Point Vétérinaire 21: 90–94Google Scholar
Andrews, B.E., Major, R. and Palmer, S.R. (1981) Ornithosis in poultry workers. Lancet i: 632–634CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Anonymous (1995) Prevalence of Chlamydia psittaci in turkeys. Misset World Poultry 11: 29Google Scholar
Arzey, G.G. and Arzey, K.E. (1990) Chlamydiosis in layer chickens. Australian Veterinary Journal 67: 461CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Arzey, K.E., Arzey, G.G. and Reece, R.L. (1990) Chlamydiosis in commercial ducks. Australian Veterinary Journal 67: 333–334CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ashton, W.L.G. (1987) Ornithosis in poultry. Veterinary Annual 27: 183–187Google Scholar
Bankowski, R.A. (1976) Report of the Committee on Transmissible Diseases of Poultry. Proceedings of the United States Animal Health Association 80: 290–296Google Scholar
Bankowski, R.A. (1986) Report of the Committee on Transmissible Diseases of Poultry and Other Avian Species. Proceedings of the United States Animal Health Association 90: 293–303Google Scholar
Barr, D. A., Scott, P.C., O'Rourke, M.D. and Coulter, R.J. (1986) Isolation of Chlamydia psittaci from commercial broiler chickens. Australian Veterinary Journal 63: 377–378CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bejleri, J. and Berxholi, K. (1987) Chlamydia in poultry in Albania. Buletini i Shkencave Zooteknike e Veterinare 5: 63–70Google Scholar
Bell, J.C. (1980) Ornithosis in poultry workers [and ducks]. Animal Disease Report, UK 3: 1–3Google Scholar
Berdau, W. (1964) Ornithosis im Kreise Greifswald. Archiv für Experimentelle Veterinärmedizin 18: 211–213Google Scholar
Bevan, B.J. and Bracewell, C.D. (1986) Chlamydiosis in birds in Great Britain. 2. Isolation of Chlamydia psittaci from birds sampled between 1976 and 1984. Journal of Hygiene (Cambridge) 96: 453–458CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Blanchard, T.J. and Mabey, D.C.W. (1994) Chlamydial infections. British Journal of Clinical Practice 48: 201–205Google ScholarPubMed
Bourke, S.J., Carrington, D., Frew, C.E., McSharry, C.P. and Boyd, G. (1992) A comparison of the seroepidemiology of chlamydial infection in pigeon fanciers and farmers in the U.K. Journal of Infection 25: Supplement 1, 91–98CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bracewell, C.D. and Bevan, B.J. (1982) Chlamydia infections in ducks: preliminary communication. Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine 75: 249–252CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bracewell, C.D. and Bevan, B.J. (1986) Chlamydiosis in Great Britain. I. Serological reactions to chlamydia in birds sampled between 1974 and 1983. Journal of Hygiene (Cambridge) 96: 447–451CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brown, P.A. and Newman, D.M. (1989) Methods of chlamydial antigen detection. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 195: 1567–1570Google ScholarPubMed
Brunner, H., Bredt, W., Krauss, H., Pelz, K., Schiefer, H.G. and Weidner, W. (1989) Isolierung und Identifizierung von Mykoplasmen und Chlamydien. Zentrablatt für Bakteriologie, Mikrobiologie und Hygiene, Serie A, 270: 470–486Google Scholar
Bruu, A.-L., Aasen, S., Tjaland, S. and Birkeland Flugsrud, L. (1984) An outbreak of ornithosis in Norway in 1981. Scandinavian Journal of Infectious Diseases 16: 145–152CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bruu, A.-L., Haukenes, G., Aasen, S., Grayston, J.T., Wang, S.P., Klausen, O.G., Myrmel, H. and Hasseltveldt, V. (1991) Chlamydia pneumoniae infectious in Norway 1981–87 earlier diagnosed as ornithosis. Scandinavian Journal of Infectious Diseases 23: 299–304CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Burdon, G.W. and Stone, C. (1986) Bird fancier's lung after an unusual exposure to avian protein. American Review of Respiratory Disease 134: 1319–1320Google ScholarPubMed
Bydgeman, S., Jonasson, J., Lidbrink, P., Olsson, A.-K. and Teichert, C. (1994) PCR technique outrivals immunoassays as an alternative to chlamydial culture for the laboratory diagnosis of genital chlamydial infections. International Journal for the Studies of AIDS (London) 5: 231–232Google Scholar
Campbell, L. A., Perez Melgosa, M., Hamilton, D.J., Kuo, C.C. and Grayston, J.T. (1992) Detection of Chlamydia pneumoniae by polymerase chain reaction. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 30: 434–439CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chalmers, W.S.K. (1984) Incidence of chlamydial antibodies in commercial duck flocks. Veterinary Record 115: 651–652CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chalmers, W.S.K., Farmer, H. and Woolcock, P.R. (1985) Duck hepatitis virus and Chlamydia psittaci outbreak (Correspondence). Veterinary Record 116: 223CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cizman, M. and Jazbec, J. (1993) Etiology of acute encephalitis in childhood in Slovenia. Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal 12: 903–908CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Claas, H. C., Melchers, W.J., de Bruijn, I.H., de Graaf, M., van Dijk, W.C., Lindeman, J. and Quint, W.G. (1990) Detection of Chlamydia trachomatis in clinical specimens by the polymerase chain reaction. European Journal of Clinical Microbiolology and Infectious Diseases 9: 864–868CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Corkish, J.D. and Bevan, B.J. (1991) Diagnosis of psittacosis. Veterinary Record 128: 42–43CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cotofan, O., Grecianu, A., Boisteanu, M. and Carpcarare, M. (1984) Morphological observations on Chlamydia psittaci infections in fowls. Lucrari Stiintifice Institutul Agronomic “Ion Ionescu de la Brad”, Iasi, Zootehnie Medicina 27–28: 69–72Google Scholar
Crosse, B.A. (1990) Psittacosis: a clinical review. Journal of Infection 21: 251–259CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cullen, G.A. (1993) Avian chlamydiosis. In: Rickettsial and Chlamydial Diseases of Domestic Animals (Eds Woldehiwet, Z. and Ristic, M.), Pergamon Press, Oxford, pp. 333–348Google Scholar
Dan, K., Li, Y.C., Gao, S.D., Duan, Y.J., Shuai, Y.Y., Yang, Z.P., Yang, X.L. and Cheng, G.L. (1989) Production and characteristics of monoclonal antibody to Chlamydia psittaci. Chinese Journal of Veterinary Science and Technology 4: 47–48Google Scholar
Dane, D.S. (1955) Complement fixing antibodies to the psittacosis lymphogranuloma group of viruses among normal people in South Australia. Medical Journal of Australia 42: 340–344CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Davis, D.E., Delaplane, J.P. and Watkins, J.R. (1957) The role of turkey eggs in the transmission of ornithosis. American Journal of Veterinary Research 18: 409–413Google ScholarPubMed
Dedié, K., Bockemühl, J., Kühn, H., Volkmer, K.-J. and Weinke, T. (1993) Psittakose, Ornithose und andere zoonotische Chlamydiosen. In: Bakterielle Zoonosen bei Tier und Mensch (Eds Dedié, K., Bockemühl, J, Kühn, H., Volkmer, K.J and Weinke, T.), Enke, Stuttgart, pp. 219–241Google Scholar
Devos, A. (1983) Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Gent, Belgium: Report on clinical and post mortem findings in poultry, other birds and rabbits during 1982. Vlaams Diergeneeskundig Tijdschrift 52: 291–297Google Scholar
Devos, A. (1985) 1983 report on clinical and postmortem findings in poultry, birds and rabbits at the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Gent, Belgium. Vlaams Diergeneeskundig Tijdschrift 54: 43–48Google Scholar
Devos, A., Viaene, N., Spanoghe, L. and Devriese, L. (1977) Health situation of poultry in Belgium during 1976. Vlaams Diergeneeskundig Tijdschrift 46: 260–265Google Scholar
Dickerson, M.S. (1962) Turkey ornithosis in man. Texas State Journal of Medicine 58: 916–920Google ScholarPubMed
Dimmitt, S.B., Pearman, J.W. and Woollard, K.V. (1985) Chlamydial endocarditis. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Medicine 15: 340–342CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Döpfner, G., Schmeer, N., Frost, J.W., Lohrbach, W. and Wachendörfer, G. (1986) Verträglichkeits- und Immunisierungsversuche mit einer kommerziellen Vakzine gegen Chlamydia psittaci und Coxiella burnetti. Deutsche Tierärztliche Wochenschrift 93: 267–269Google Scholar
Dournon, E., Sirinelli, A., Frottier, J. and Bastin, R. (1983) Manifestations neurologiques de l'ornithose. La Semaine des Hôpitaux de Paris 59: 1763–1765Google Scholar
Duncan, P.R., Thomas, A.F. and Tobin, J.O. (1952) Ornithosis: isolation of the virus from a case. Lancet i: 696–697CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Durfee, P.T., Pullen, M.M., Currier, R.W. II and Parker, R.L. (1975) Human psittacosis associated with commercial processing of turkeys. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 167: 804–808Google ScholarPubMed
Eb, F. (1993) Chlamydia psittaci: epidemiology, pathology and diagnostic. Médecine et Maladies Infectieuses 23: 919–924CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eckey, P. (1960) Klinische Beobachtungen bei Ornithoseerkrankungen von Beschäftigten eines Schlachthofes. Zeitschrift für die Gesamte Innere Medizin 15: 644–646Google Scholar
Edwards, W.A. (1981) Ornithosis in poultry workers. Veterinary Record 108: 155Google Scholar
Etienne, J., Ory, D., Thouvenot, D., Eb, F., Raoult, D., Loire, R., Delahaye, J.P. and Beaune, J. (1992) Chlamydial endocarditis: a report on ten cases. European Heart Journal 13: 1422–1426CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Evans, R.T., Chalmers, W.S.K., Woolcock, P.R., Farmer, H. and Taylor-Robinson, D. (1983) An enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) for the detection of chlamydial antibody in duck sera. Avian Pathology 12: 117–124CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Farmer, H., Chalmers, W.S.K. and Woolcock, P.R. (1982) Chlamydia psittaci isolated from the eyes of domestic ducks (Anas platyrhynchos) with conjunctivitis and rhinitis. Veterinary Record 110: 59CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Filstein, M.R., Ley, A.B., Vernon, M.S, Gaffney, K.A. and Glickman, L.T. (1981) Epidemic of psittacosis in a college of veterinary medicine. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 179: 569–572Google Scholar
Fioretti, A., Menna, L.F., Conzo, G., Guarini, C.P.B. and Papparella, V. (1992) Presence of chlamydia in cloacal swabs of intensively reared Toulouse geese. Proceedings of the 9th International Symposium on Waterfowl, 16–18 September 1992, Department of Anatomical Physiology, Pisa, pp. 185–186Google Scholar
Fitz, R.H., Meiklejohn, G. and Baum, M.D. (1955) Psittacosis in Colorado. American Journal of Medical Science 229: 252–261CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Frankl, L., Hodosi, L. and Revfalvi, S. (1971) Haut- und Schleimhautveränderungen bei Ornithose. Zeitschrift für Haut- und Geschlechtskrankheiten 46: 303–306Google Scholar
Frazer, P.K., Hatch, L.A., Shell, G.N., le Clerocq, L.G.H., Pratt, D.W. and Forster, J.M. (1964) Minor respiratory illnesses caused by an agens of the psittacosis/lymphogranuloma venerum group. Lancet ii: 306–308CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fukushi, H. and Hirai, K. (1988) Immunological diversity of the major outer membrane protein of avian and mammalian Chlamydia psittaci. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 26: 675–680CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fukushi, H. and Hirai, K. (1989) Genetic diversity of avian and mammalian Chlamydia psittaci strains in relation to host origin. Journal of Bacteriology 171: 2850–2855CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fukushi, H. and Hirai, K. (1992) Proposal of Chlamydia pecorum sp. nov. for chlamydia strains derived from ruminants. International Journal of Systematic Bacteriology 42: 306–308CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fürst, W., Kovac, W. and Moritsch, H. (1957) Enten als Virusreservoir für Ornithose-erkrankungen des Menschen. Wiener Klinische Wochenschrift 69: 223–228Google Scholar
Galo, A.J., Regalla, J.M. and Lage, M.C.D. (1982) Turkey “syndrome 81” in Portugal – Chlamydia psittaci infection. Repositorio de Trabalhos do Instituto Nacional de Veterinaria 14: 13–22Google Scholar
Gerlach, H. (1994) Diagnosis of chlamydiosis. Treatment of Chlamydiosis. In: Avian Medicine: Principles and Application (Eds Ritchie, B.W., Harrison, G.J. and Harrison, L.R.), Wingers, Lake Worth, Florida, pp. 990–996Google Scholar
Gerloff, R. K. and Lackman, D.B. (1954) Observations regarding the presence of psittacosis and related viruses in the Northwestern States. American Journal of Public Health 44: 323–327CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Glass, S. E., Grimes, J.E., Hall, C.F. and Moore, R.W. (1975) Ornithosis in Texas turkeys in 1974–1975. Proceedings of the 24th Western Poultry Disease Conference and 9th Poultry Health Symposium, 18–20 March 1975, University of California Davis, Cooperative Extension Service, Davis pp. 59–61Google Scholar
Gneuss, W. and Koitzsch, K.-D. (1961) Über eine Epidemie von Ornithose mit häufigen Rezidiven. Deutsches Gesundheitswesen 16: 964–972Google Scholar
Goldstein, M.D., Schwartz, B.S., MacCarillo, B., Borbi, M. and Tuccillo, R. (1989) A health hazard evaluation of pheasant handlers. Journal of Occupational Medicine 31: 473–476Google ScholarPubMed
Gorovits, E.S., Timasheva, O.A., Cheszova, A.E. and Voronin, Y.K. (1979) Isolation of the ornithosis agent (Chlamydia psittaci) from gamasid mites (Ornithonyssus sylviarum). Voprosy Viruslogii 6: 654–657Google Scholar
Graber, R.E. and Pomeroy, B.S. (1958) Ornithosis (psittacosis): an epidemiological study of a Wisconsin human outbreak transmitted from turkeys. American Journal of Public Health 48: 1469–1483CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Grantová, H. and Milek, E. (1962) Ornithoseepidemie in einem Geflügelschlachthof. Zeitschrift für die ärztliche Fortbildung (Jena) 56: 897–902Google Scholar
Grayston, J.T., Cuo, C.-C., Campbell, L.A. and Wang, S.-P. (1989) Chlamydia pneumoniae sp. nov. for Chlamydia sp. strain TWAR. International. Journal of Systematic Bacteriology 39: 88–90CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Grimes, J.E. (1978) Transmission of chlamydiae from grackles to turkeys. Avian Diseases 22: 308–312CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Grimes, J.E. (1987) Zoonoses acquired from pet birds. Veterinary Clinics of North America: Small Animal Practice 17: 209–218CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Grimes, J.E. (1989) Serodiagnosis of avian chlamydia infections. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 195: 1561–1564Google ScholarPubMed
Grimes, J.E. and Wyrick, P.B. (1991) Chlamydiosis (ornithosis). In: Diseases of Poultry, 9th edn (Eds Calnek, B.W., Barnes, H.J., Beard, C.W., Reid, W.M. and Yoder, H.W. Jr.), Iowa State University Press, Ames, pp. 311–325Google Scholar
Grimes, J.E., Owens, K.J. and Singer, J.R. (1979) Experimental transmission of Chlamydia psittaci to turkeys from wild birds. Avian Diseases 23: 915–926CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gural', A. L., Zatulovskii, B.G. and Popovich, G.G. (1979) Prevalence of ornithosis-like infections in the Ukrainian USSR. Journal of Hygiene, Epidemiology, Microbiology and Immunology 23: 168–173Google Scholar
Hafez, H.M. (1994) Chlamydien-Infektionen bei Geflügel. Proceedings of the Fachgruppe “Geflügelkrankheiten” der Deutschen Veterinärmedizinischen Gesellschaft and German branch of the World's Veterinary Poultry Association, 46th Semiannual Meeting on Poultry Diseases, Hannover, 26–27 May 1994, Deutsche Veterinärmedizinische Gesellschaft, Gießen, pp. 119–131Google Scholar
Hafez, H.M. and Sting, R. (1992) Chlamydien-Infektionen bei Puten. Proceedings of the Fachgruppe “Geflügelkrankheiten” der Deutschen Veterinärmedizinischen Gesellschaft, 8th DVG-Meeting on Avian Diseases, Munich, 5–6 March 1992. Deutsche Veterinärmedizinische Gesellschaft, Gießen, pp. 91–104Google Scholar
Hafez, H.M. and Sting, R. (1993) Chlamydien-Infektionen bei Puten: Literaturübersicht und Auswertung eigener Untersuchungen. Archiv für Geflügelkunde 57: 16–21Google Scholar
Hagmar, L., Schütz, A., Hallberg, T. and Sjöholm, A. (1990) Health effects of exposure to endotoxins and organic dust in poultry slaughter-house workers. International Archives of Occupational and Environmental Health 62: 159–164CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hansen, D.E., Hedstrom, O.R., Sonn, R.J. and Snyder, S.P. (1990) Efficacy of a vaccine to prevent Chlamydia- or Campylobacter-induced abortions in ewes. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 196: 731–734CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Harris, J.W. (1983a) Zoonotic human chlamydiosis of avian origin – a review with particular reference to epidemiology and control. Part I. Epidemiology. World's Poultry Science Journal 39: 5–23CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harris, J.W. (1983b) Zoonotic human chlamydiosis of avian origin – a review with particular reference to epidemiology and control. Part II. Control of zoonotic chlamydiosis. World's Poultry Science Journal 39: 87–98CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hedberg, K., White, K.E., Forfang, J.C., Korlath, J.A., Friendshuh, K.A.J., Hedberg, C.W., MacDonald, KL. and Osterholm, M.T. (1989) An outbreak of psittacosis in Minnesota turkey industry workers: implications for modes of transmission and control. American Journal of Epidemiology 130: 569–577CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Heim, L. (1961) Zur Klinik der Ornithose im Kindesalter. Archiv für Kinderheilkunde 161: 18–23Google Scholar
Herring, A.J. (1991) PCR test for Chlamydia psittaci [Comment]. Veterinary Record 128: 555CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hewinson, R.G., Griffith, P.C., Rankin, S.E., Dawson, M. and Woodward, M.J. (1991) Towards a differential polymerase chain reaction test for Chlamydia psittaci [Comment]. Veterinary Record 128: 381–382CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hewinson, R.G., Rankin, S.E., Bevan, B.J., Field, M. and Woodward, M.J. (1991) Detection of Chlamydia psittaci from avian field samples using the PCR. Veterinary Record 128: 129–130CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hines, M.P., Page, P.M., Hirschberg, N. and Maddry, L.G. (1957) Ornithosis and leptospirosis survey of a chicken and turkey processing plant and textile mill in North Carolina. Veterinary Medicine 52: 337–338, 356Google Scholar
Hinton, D.G., Shipley, A., Galvin, J.W., Harkin, J.T. and Brunton, R.A. (1993) Chlamydiosis in workers at a duck farm and processing plant. Australian Veterinary Journal 70: 174–176CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hinz, K.-H., Ryll, M., Heffels-Redmann, U. and Pöppel, M. (1992) Multikausal bedingte infektiöse Atemwegserkrankung junger Mastputen. Deutsche Tierärztliche Wochenschrift 99: 75–78Google Scholar
Hobson, D. and Morgan-Capner, P. (1988) Chlamydial antibodies in farmers in north-west England. Epidemiology and Infection 101: 397–404CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Holland, S. M., Gaydos, C.A. and Quinn, T.C. (1990) Detection and differentiation of Chlamydia trachomatis, Chlamydia psittaci, and Chlamydia pneumoniae by DNA amplification. Journal of Infectious Diseases 162: 984–987CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Huminer, D., Pitlik, S., Kitayin, D., Weissman, Y. and Samra, Z. (1992) Prevalence of Chlamydia psittaci infection among persons who work with birds. Israel Journal of Medical Science 28: 739–741Google ScholarPubMed
Irons, J. V., Mason, D. and White, R.F. (1956) Psittacosis (ornithosis) in Texas. Southern Medical Journal 49: 1061–1064CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Irons, J. V., Sullivan, T.D. and Rowen, J. (1951) Outbreak of psittacosis (ornithosis) from working with turkeys or chickens. American Journal of Public Health 41: 931–937CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jansson, E. (1960) Ornithosis in Helsinki and some other localities in Finland. Annales Medicinae Experimentalis et Biologicae Fenniae 38: Supplement 4, 1–110Google Scholar
Jindřichová, J. (1972) Berufliche Anthropozoonosen in der CSSR und einige Probleme der Ornithose. Zeitschrift für die Gesamte Hygiene 18: 408–414Google Scholar
Jindřichová, J. (1980) Chlamydieninfektionen exponierter Personengruppen in der CSSR. Wissenschaftliche Zeitschrift der Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Mathematisch-Naturwissenschaftliche Reihe 29: 33–35Google Scholar
Joergensen, W. (1978) Outbreak of Chlamydia psittaci infection in the poultry industry. An epidemiological investigation of poultry abattoir workers and poultry producers. Dansk Veterinaer-tidsskrift 61: 1202–1205Google Scholar
Johnson, F.W.A. (1983) Zoonoses in practice. Chlamydiosis. British Veterinary Journal 139: 93–101CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Johnson, M.C. and Grimes, J.E. (1983) Resistance of wild birds to infection by Chlamydia psittaci of mammalian origin. Journal of Infectious Diseases 147: 162CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kaltenboeck, B. and Storz, J. (1992) Biological properties and genetic analysis of the ompA locus in chlamydiae isolated from swine. American Journal of Veterinary Research 53: 1482–1487CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kaltenboeck, B., Kousoulas, K.G. and Storz, J. (1991) Detection and strain differentiation of Chlamydia psittaci mediated by a two-step polymerase chain reaction. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 29: 1969–1975CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kaltenboeck, B., Kousoulas, K.G. and Storz, J. (1992) Two-step polymerase chain reactions and restriction endonuclease analyses detect and differentiate ompA DNA of Chlamydia spp. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 30: 1098–1104CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Karrer, H., Eddie, B. and Schmid, R. (1950) Barnyard fowl as a source of human ornithosis. California Medicine 73: 55–57Google ScholarPubMed
Kawane, H. and Soejima, R. (1987) Harmful aspects of keeping birds [letter]. Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine 80: 599.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kewitsch, A. and Berdau, W. (1965) Serologische Untersuchungen mit der Komplement-bindungsreaktion auf Ornithose in einem ländlichen Gebiet. Archiv für Experimentelle Veterinärmedizin 19: 572–575Google Scholar
Kikuta, A., Furakawa, N., Yoshida, T., Fukushi, H., Yamaguchi, T. and Hirai, K. (1991) Antigenic analysis of avian Chlamydia psittaci using monoclonal antibodies to the major outer membrane protein. Journal of Veterinary Medical Science 53: 385–389CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kim, T.-W., Morris, R., Harrison, , Bear, G.T., Halpin, T.J., Shuler, J.M., et al. (1982) Psittacosis associated with turkey processing – Ohio. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 30: 638–640Google Scholar
Kirsch, W.-D. and Günther, O. (1964) Klinische Beobachtungen bei Ornithose. Zeitschrift für Innere Medizin 19: 131–135Google Scholar
Kittel, (1955) Ornithosis in Norddeutschland. Desinfektion und Gesundheitswesen 47: 65–66Google Scholar
Klocke, G. and Neuer, A. (1993) Stellenwert des Gensondentests in der Routinediagnostik von Chlamydieninfektionen. Archives of Gynecology and Obstetrics 254: 612–615CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Korns, R.F. (1955) Psittacosis in ducks and persons exposed to ducks. In: Psittacosis: Diagnosis, Epidemiology and Control (Ed. Beaudette, F.R.), Rutgers University Press, New Brunswick, pp. 80–89Google Scholar
Kramer, H., Wuthe, H., Bergmann, K.-C. and Heinze, R. (1983) Immunological and pathophysiological study of persons employed in factory poultry farming. Part 1: Demonstration of lymphocyte stimulation and antibodies (in German). Praxis und Klinik der Pneumologie 37: 220–221Google Scholar
Krauss, H. (1982) Die Bedeutung von Rickettsien und Chlamydien bei kleinen Haustieren als Erreger von Zoonosen. Berliner und Münchener Tierärztliche Wochenschrift 95: 480–483Google Scholar
Krauss, H. and Schiefer, H.-G. (1982) Avian chlamydiosis: significance, epidemiology, diagnosis and control. In: Agriculture: Some Diseases of Emerging Importance to Community Trade (Eds Walton, J.R., White, E.G. and Hall, S.A.), Commission of the European Communities, Luxembourg, pp. 122–135Google Scholar
Krauss, H. and Schmeer, N. (1992) Aviäre Chlamydiose. In: Handbuch der Geflügelkrankheiten, Volume 2 (Eds Heider, G. and Monreal, G.), Gustav Fischer, Stuttgart, pp. 277–308Google Scholar
Kukowa, A. and Stephan, H. (1961) Über 23 im Jahre 1959 in der Infektionsabteilung des Krankenhauses Greiz (Thüringen) beobachtete Fälle von Ornithose. Zeitschrift für ärztliche Fortbildung 9: 584–587Google Scholar
Kukowa, A., Stephan, H. and Krebs, W. (1960) Entenfarm als Ausgangspunkt von Ornithoseerkrankungen beim Menschen. Deutsches Gesundheitswesen 15: 2477–2484Google Scholar
Kuo, C.C., Chen, H.H., Wang, S.P. and Grayston, J.T. (1986) Identification of a new group of Chlamydia psittaci strains called TWAR. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 24: 1034–1037CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kuroda-Kitagawa, Y., Suzuki-Muramatsu, C., Yamaguchi, T., Fukushi, H. and Hirai, K. (1993) Antigenic analysis of Chlamydia pecorum and mammalian Chlamydia psittaci by use of monoclonal antibodies to the major outer membrane protein and a 56- to 64-kd protein. American Journal of Veterinary Research 54: 709–712CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lang, G.H. (1984a) Chlamydiosis in turkeys. Serological diagnosis by the ELISA method. Recueil de Médecine Vétérinaire 160: 763–771Google Scholar
Lang, G.H. (1984b) Human chlamydiosis of avian origin. Communication, Food Production and Inspection Branch, Agriculture Canada 2: 39–40Google Scholar
Leachman, R.D. and Yow, E.M. (1958) The epidemiology of psittacosis and report of a turkeyborne outbreak. American Medical Association Archives of Internal Medicine 102: 537–543CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Linklater, K.A., Low, J.C. and Hosie, B.D. (1987) A field trial of ovine enzootic abortion vaccine. Veterinary Record 121: 303–304CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Loeffelholz, M.J., Lewinski, C.A., Herman, A.P., Purohit, S.A., Buonagurio, D.A. and Dragon, E.A. (1992) Detection of Chlamydia trachomatis in endocervical specimens by polymerase chain reaction. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 30: 2847–2851CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McClenaghan, M., Honeycombe, J.R., Bevan, B.J. and Herring, A.J. (1988) Distribution of plasmid sequences in avian and mammalian strains of Chlamydia psittaci. Journal of General Microbiology 134: 559–565Google ScholarPubMed
MacFarlane, J.T. and MacRae, A.D. (1983) Psittacosis. Bristish Medical Bulletin 39: 163–167CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
MacFarlane, J.T., Finch, R.G., Ward, M.J. and MacRae, A.D. (1982) Hospital study of adult community acquired pneumonia. Lancet ii: 255–258CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Maffei, C., Marracino, A., di Stanislao, F., Pauri, P., Clementi, M. and Varaldo, P.E. (1987) Psittacosis in a highly endemic area in Italy. Epidemiology and Infection 99: 413–419CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Malottki, K. von (1995) Nachweismethoden von Chlamydia psittaci in der Diagnostik und der epidemiologische Zusammenhang aviärer und menschlicher Ornithosefälle – eine Literaturstudie. Hannover, Tierärztliche Hochschule, DissertationGoogle Scholar
Mandel, A. and Jordan, W.S. (1952) Ornithosis (psittacosis) in chickens and turkey workers. American Journal of Hygiene 55: 230–238Google Scholar
Manresa, F. and Dorca, J. (1994) Mycoplasma, coxiella and chlamydial infections. Current Opinion in Infectious Diseases 7: 173–178CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Markey, B.K., McNulty, M.S., Todd, D. and MacKie, D.P. (1993) Comparison of ovine abortion and non-abortion isolates of Chlamydia psittaci using inclusion morphology, poly-acrylamide gel electrophoresis, restriction endonucleases analysis and reactivity with monoclonal antibodies. Veterinary Microbiology 35: 141–159CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Melgosa, M.P., Kuo, C.C. and Campbell, L.A. (1993) Outer membrane complex proteins of Chlamydia pneumoniae. Federation of European Microbiological Societies (FEMS) Microbiology Letters 112: 199–204CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Meyer, K.F. (1941) Pigeons and barn yard fowls as possible sources of human psittacosis or ornithosis. Schweizer Medizinische Wochenschrift 71: 1377–1379Google Scholar
Meyer, K.F. and Eddie, B. (1942) Spontaneous ornithosis (psittacosis) in chickens the cause of a human infection. Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine 49: 522–525CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Milek, E. and Grantová, H. (1965) Der heutige Stand von Ornithose und Psittakose in der Tschechoslowakei. Medizinische Klinik 60: 1533–1535Google Scholar
Milek, E. and Grantová, H. (1966) Wiedererkrankung an Ornithose. Deutsches Medizinisches Journal 17: 440–444Google Scholar
Miller, M.A., Turk, J.R., Nelson, S.L., van der Lek, A.P., Solorzano, R., Fales, W.H., Morehouse, M.G. and Gosser, H.S. (1990) Chlamydial infection in aborted and stillborn lambs. Journal of Veterinary Diagnostic Investigation 2: 55–58CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mondesire, R.R., MacLean, I.W., Shewen, P.W. and Winston, S.E. (1989) Identification of genus-specific epitopes on the outer membrane complexes of Chlamydia trachomatis and Chlamydia psittaci immunotypes 1 and 2. Infection and Immunity 57: 2914–2918CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mordhurst, C.H. (1978) Outbreak of ornithosis among employees in the poultry industry. A seroepidemiological investigation. Ugeskrift for Laeger 140: 2875Google Scholar
Nagieva, F.G., Shafikova, R.A., Nikulina, V.G., Krasnova, N.I., Ravilov, A.Z., Ravilov, O.G., Andzhapardize, R.K.H. and Safin, R.N. (1991) Monoclonal antibodies to Chlamydia psittaci: their isolation and use. Zhurnal Mikrobiologii, Epidemiologii i Immunobiologii (Moskva) 10: 58–61Google Scholar
Nagington, J. (1984) Psittacosis/ornithosis in Cambridgeshire 1975–1983. Journal of Hygiene (London) 92: 9–19CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Newman, C.P., Palmer, S.R., Kirby, F.D. and Caul, E.O. (1992) A prolonged outbreak of ornithosis in duck processors. Epidemiology and Infection 108: 203–210CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Newman, J.A. (1989) Chlamydia spp. infection in turkey flocks in Minnesota. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 195: 1528–1530Google ScholarPubMed
Oldach, D.W., Gaydos, C.A., Mundy, L.M. and Quinn, T.C. (1993) Rapid diagnosis of Chlamydia psittaci pneumonia. Clinical Infectious Diseases (Chicago) 17: 338–343CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ortel, S. (1960) Serologische und epidemiologische Untersuchungen während einer Ornithose-Epidemie bei Angestellten eines Schlachthofes. Zentralblatt für Bakteriologie, I. Abteilung Originale 180: 441–448Google Scholar
Ortel, S. (1964) Zur Ornithose-Situation in der DDR auf Grund epidemiologischer und serologischer Untersuchungen. Archiv für Experimentelle Veterinärmedizin 18: 89–96Google Scholar
Otto, H. (1961) Über Ornithosepneumonien bei Geflügelrupferinnen (Übertragung durch Hühner). Zeitschrift für die Gesamte Innere Medizin 16: 377–385Google Scholar
Page, L.A. (1966) Revision of the family Chlamydiaceae Rake (Rickettsiales): unification of the psittacosis-lymphogranuloma venereum-trachoma-group of organisms in the genus Chlamydia. International Journal of Systematic Bacteriology 16: 223–252CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Page, L.A. (1975) Chlamydiosis (Ornithosis/Psittacosis). In: Isolation and Identification of Avian Pathogens (Eds Hitchner, S.B., Domermuth, C.H., Purchase, H.G. and Williams, J.E.), Arnold, Los Angeles, pp. 118–132Google Scholar
Page, L.A., Derieux, W.T. and Cutlip, R.C. (1975) An epornitic of fatal chlamydiosis (ornithosis) in South Carolina turkeys. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 166: 175–178Google ScholarPubMed
Page, L.A., Parker, S. and Grimes, J.E. (1979) Sources of ornithosis identified. Agricultural Research (USA) 27: 14.Google Scholar
Palmer, S.R. (1982) Psittacosis in man – recent developments in the UK: a review. Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine 75: 262–267CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Palmer, S.R., Andrews, B.E. and Major, R. (1981) A common-source outbreak of ornithosis in veterinary surgeons. Lancet ii: 798–799CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Parnas, J. (1964) Ergebnisse der bisherigen Forschungen über Ornithose. Archiv für Experimentelle Veterinärmedizin 18: 77–87Google Scholar
Parnas, J., Szmuness, W. and Cymmerman, H. (1961) Untersuchungsergebnisse über Ornithose. Zentralblatt für Bakteriologie. I. Abteilung Originale 183: 141–154Google Scholar
Parnas, J., Hencner, Z., Jablonska, M. and Dolezko, H. (1966) Weitere Untersuchungen über das Vorkommen der Ornithose. Zentralblatt für Bakteriologie. I. Abteilung Originale 201: 397–405Google Scholar
Pedersen, L. M., Lundsted, C. and Jorgensen, W. (1978) Outbreak of Chlamydia psittaci infection in the poultry industry. An epidemiological investigation of poultry abattoir workers and poultry producers. Ugeskrift for Laeger 140: 46Google Scholar
Perez-Martinez, J.A. and Storz, J. (1985) Antigenic diversity of Chlamydia psittaci of mammalian origin determined by microimmunofluorescence. Infection and Immunity 50: 905–910CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Persson, K. and Treharne, J. (1989) Diagnosis of infection caused by Chlamydia pneumoniae (strain TWAR) in patients with ‘ornithosis’ in Southern Sweden 1981–1987. Scandinavian Journal of Infectious Diseases 21: 675–679CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Peterson, E.M., Oda, R., Alexander, R., Greenwood, J.R. and de la Maza, L.M. (1989) Molecular techniques for the detection of Chlamydia trachomatis. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 27: 2359–2363CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Potter, M.E. and Kaufmann, A.F. (1979) Psittacosis in humans in the United States, 1975–1977. Journal of Infectious Diseases 140: 131–134CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Poulsen, K.B. and Nielsen, H.W. (1991) Health problems among persons exposed to grain dust (in Danish). Ugeskrift for Laeger 153: 1986–1990Google Scholar
Prip, M. (1980) Chlamydiosis in poultry. Dansk Veterinaertidskrift 63: 18–20Google Scholar
Prip, M. (1981) Chlamydiosis (psittacosis) associated with poultry processing plants. Proceedings of the 7th International Congress of the World's Veterinary Poultry Association, Oslo, 1–3 July 1981. Norwegian Veterinary Association, Abstract Edition, p. 61Google Scholar
Rai, A., Charan, S. and Mahajan, V.M. (1982) Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for the detection of chlamydial antigens in poultry-associated individuals. Indian Journal of Medical Research 76: 393–397Google Scholar
Rasmussen, S.J., Douglas, F.P. and Timms, P. (1992) PCR detection and differentiation of Chlamydia pneumoniae, Chlamydia psittaci and Chlamydia trachomatis. Molecular Cell Probes 6: 389–394CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Reis, J., Le Faou, A., Levy, F., Kapfer, M.T. and Gut, J.P. (1985) Forme confusionelle d'une encéphalite à Chlamydia psittaci. Intérêt diagnostique de la microimmunofluorescence. Une observation. La Presse Médicale 14: 87–89.Google Scholar
Rhyne, J.A., Hunter, L., Staes, C., Meriwether, R.A. and MacCormack, J.N. (1990) Psittacosis in a turkey processing plant – North Carolina, 1989. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 39: 460–461, 467–469Google Scholar
Rindge, M.E., Jungherr, E.L. and Scruggs, J.H. (1959) Serologic evidence of occupational psittacosis in poultry plant workers. New England Journal of Medicine 260: 1214–1218CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Roberts, J.P. and Grimes, J.E. (1978) Chlamydia shedding by four species of wild birds. Avian Diseases 22: 698–706CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rumpianesi, F., La Placa, M.J., D'Antuono, A., Negosanti, M. and Pavan, G. (1993) Assessment of the ‘Amplicor’ PCR test in the diagnosis of Chlamydia trachomatis infection. Microbiologica (Bologna) 16: 293–295Google ScholarPubMed
Ruppanner, R., Behymer, D.E., Delong, W.J. III, Franti, C.E. and Schulz, T. (1984) Enzyme immunoassay of chlamydia in birds. Avian Diseases 28: 608–615CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ryll, M., Hinz, K.-H., Neumann, U. and Behr, K.-P. (1994) Pilotstudie über das Vorkommen von Chlamydia psittaci Infektionen in kommerziellen Putenherden Niedersachsens. Deutsche Tierärztliche Wochenschrift 101: 133–172Google Scholar
Sadowski, J. M. and Minta, Z. (1979) Chlamydiosis of the air sacs in geese. Bulletin of the Veterinary Institute in Pulawy 23: 111–115Google Scholar
Sato, C., Katumata, A., Takashima, I. and Hashimoto, N. (1991a) Cloning and antigenic expression of two genes from Chlamydia psittaci avian strain. Federation of the European Microbiological Societies (FEMS). Microbiology Letters 80: 201–206CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sato, C., Katumata, A., Takashima, I. and Hashimoto, N. (1991b) Nucleotide sequence of a gene encoding a new genus specific protein of Chlamydia psittaci. Japanese Journal of Veterinary Research 39: 159–165Google ScholarPubMed
Schachter, J. (1989) Chlamydial infections – past, present and future. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 195: 1501–1506Google Scholar
Schachter, J., Storz, J., Tarizzo, M. and Bögel, K. (1973) Chlamydiae as agents of human and animal diseases. Bulletin of the World Health Organisation 49: 443–449Google ScholarPubMed
Schmeer, N. and Busche, R. (1983) Seroepidemiologische Untersuchungen auf Ornithose und Salmonellose mittels Enzym-Immuntest in mittelhessischen Taubenbeständen. Fortschritte der Veterinärmedizin 37: 115–120Google Scholar
Schmeer, N., Herbst, W., Cegla, C. and Redmann, T. (1985) Zum Vorkommen von Antikörpern gegen Chlamydia psittaci und Coxiella burnetti beim Huhn: Untersuchungen mit einem Enzym-Immuntest (ELISA). Proceedings 16th Kongreβ der Deutschen Veterinärmedizinischen Gesell-schaft (DVG), Bad Nauheim, 17–20 April 1985, Deutsche Veterinärmedizinische Gesellschaft, Gießen, pp. 410–417Google Scholar
Schmeer, N., Herbst, W., Cegla, C. and Redmann, T. (1986) Zum Vorkommen von Chlamydien-Antikörpern beim Huhn. Untersuchungen mit einem Enzym-Immuntest (ELISA). Praktischer Tierarzt 67(Suppl): 75Google Scholar
Schnurrenberger, P.R. and Masterson, R.A. (1966) The prevalence of antibodies against selected zoonotic diseases in abattoir workers. Archives of Environmental Health 3: 336–339CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schnurrenberger, P. R., Helwig, J. and Bashe, W.J. Jr. (1964a) The incidence of zoonotic infections in veterinary students. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 144: 384–386Google ScholarPubMed
Schnurrenberger, P.R., Masterson, R.A. and Russell, J.H. (1964b) Serological surveys for selected zoonoses in Ohio veterinarians. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 144: 381–383Google ScholarPubMed
Seki, C., Takashima, I., Arikawa, J. and Hashimoto, N. (1988) Monoclonal antibodies to Chlamydia psittaci: characteristics and antigenic analysis. Japanese Journal of Veterinary Science 50: 383–393Google ScholarPubMed
Šerý, V., Strauss, J., Fantová, Z., Mazel, J. and Vodráček, V. (1961) Immunological survey of ornithosis in the population of the Czech region. Journal of Hygiene (London) 5: 439–443Google Scholar
Siegmund, I. (1960) Die zunehmende klinische und epidemiologische Bedeutung der Ornithose in der DDR. Zeitschrift für die Gesamte Innere Medizin 15: 622–626Google Scholar
Sillis, M. and White, P. (1990) Rapid identification of Chlamydia psittaci and TWAR (C. pneumoniae) in sputum samples using an amplified enzyme immunoassay. Journal of Clinical Pathology 43: 260CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sillis, M., White, P., Caul, O., Paul, I.D. and Treharne, J.D. (1992) The differentiation of chlamydia species by antigen detection in sputum specimes from patients with community-acquired respiratory infections. Journal of Infection 25: Suppl. 1, 77–86CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Solt, K. (1979) Epidemiological aspects of human ornithosis in Hungary (1967–1972). Acta Veterinaria Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae 27: 65–71Google Scholar
Solt, K., Dömök, I. and Bölcskei, T. (1962/1963) Epidemiological and serological analysis of the first ornithosis epidemics in Hungary. Acta Microbiologica Hungaricae 9: 369–380Google ScholarPubMed
Stanford, C.F., Connolly, J.H., Ellis, W.A., Smyth, E.T., Coyle, P.V., Montgomery, W.I. and Simpson, D.I.H. (1990) Zoonotic infections in Northern Ireland farmers. Epidemiology and Infection 105: 565–570CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stelzner, A., Urbach, H., Müller, W., Weller, E. and Talaska, W. (1972) Über eine verdeckte Ornithose-Epidemie im Bezirk Gera. Deutsches Gesundheitswesen 27: 763–768Google ScholarPubMed
Stelzner, A., Weller, E. and Kittlick, M. (1980) Klinische Studien zur Ornithose-infektion (unter Berücksichtigung eventueller Spätschäden). Wissenschaftliche Zeitschrift der Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Mathematisch-Naturwissenschaftliche Reihe 29: 37–40Google Scholar
Storey, C., Lusher, M., Yates, P. and Richmond, S. (1993) Evidence for Chlamydia pneumoniae of non-human origin. Journal of General Microbiology 139: 2621–2626CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Storz, J. (1971) Chlamydia and Chlamydia-induced Diseases. Charles C. Thomas, Springfield, IllinoisGoogle Scholar
Storz, J. (1988) Overview of animal diseases induced by chlamydial infections. In: Microbiology of the Chlamydia (Ed. Barron, A.L.), CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida, pp. 167–192Google Scholar
Storz, J. and Kaltenboeck, B. (1993) The Chlamydiales. In: Rickettsial and Chlamydial Diseases of Domestic Animals (Eds Woldehiwet, Z. and Ristic, M.), Pergamon Press, Oxford, pp. 27–64Google Scholar
Storz, J. and Krauss, H. (1985) Chlamydia. In: Handbuch der Bakteriellen Infektionen bei Tieren. Band V (Eds Blobel, H. and Schließer, T.), Gustav Fischer, Jena, pp. 447–531, 650–651Google Scholar
Strauss, J. (1967) Microbiologic and epidemiologic aspects of duck ornithosis in Czechoslovakia. American Journal of Opthalmology 63: 1246–1259CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Strauss, J. and Šerý, V. (1964) Ornithose in der CSSR. Epidemiologisch-virologische Aspekte. Archiv für Experimentelle Veterinärmedizin 18: 161Google Scholar
Suwa, T. and Itakura, C. (1992) Ultrastructural studies of chlamydia-infected air sacs of chicks. Avian Pathology 21: 443–452CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Suwa, T., Ando, S., Hashimoto, N. and Itakura, C. (1990) Pathology of experimental chlamydiosis in chicks. Japanese Journal of Veterinary Science 52: 275–283Google ScholarPubMed
Takahashi, T., Takashima, I. and Hashimoto, N. (1988a) Immunotyping of Chlamydia psittaci by indirect immunofluorescence antibody test with monoclonal antibodies. Microbiology and Immunology 32: 251–263CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Takahashi, T., Takashima, I. and Hashimoto, N. (1988b) A chicken model of systemic infection with Chlamydia psittaci: comparison of the virulence among avian and mammalian strains. Japanese Journal of Veterinary Science 50: 622–631Google ScholarPubMed
Takahashi, T., Takashima, I. and Hashimoto, N. (1988c) Shedding and transmission of Chlamydia psittaci in experimentally infected chickens. Avian Diseases 32: 650–658CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tan, T.W., Herring, A.J., Anderson, I.E. and Jones, G.E. (1990) Protection of sheep against Chlamydia psittaci infection with a subcellular vaccine containing the major outer membrane protein. Infection and Immunity 58: 3101–3108CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tappe, J.P. Jr., Andersen, A.A. and Cheville, N.F. (1989) Respiratory and pericardial lesions in turkeys infected with avian or mammalian strains of Chlamydia psittaci. Veterinary Pathology 26: 386–395CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Thelin, A., Tegler, Ö. and Rylander, R. (1984) Lung reactions during poultry handling related to dust and bacterial endotoxin levels. European Journal of Respiratory Diseases 65: 266–271Google ScholarPubMed
Timms, P., Eaves, F.W., Rodwell, B.J. and Lavin, M.F. (1988) Comparison of DNA-spot hybridization, cell culture and direct immunofluorescence staining for the diagnosis of avian chlamydiae. Veterinary Microbiolology 18: 15–25CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tong, C. Y. W. and Sillis, M. (1993) Detection of Chlamydia pneumoniae and Chlamydia psittaci in sputum samples by PCR. Journal of Clinical Pathology 46: 313–317CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Trüb, C. L. P. and Posch, J. (1963) Zur Epidemiologie der Ornithose-Psittakose im Land Nordrhein-Westfalen von 1950–1960. Archiv für Hygiene und Bakteriologie 146: 607–627Google Scholar
Unkrig, S. (1994) Chlamydiendiagnostik mit Hilfe der BGM-Zellkultur und zwei Immunfluoreszenzmethoden bei Puten und Hühnern. Proceedings of the Fachgruppe “Geflügelkrankheiten” der Deutschen Veterinärmedizinischen Gesellschaft and German branch of the World's Veterinary Poultry Association, 46th Semiannual Meeting on Poultry DiseasesHannover26–27 May 1994. Deutsche Veterinärmedizinische Gesellschaft, Gießen, pp. 109–118Google Scholar
Vanrompay, D., Andersen, A.A., Ducatelle, R. and Haesebrouk, F. (1993a) Serotyping of European isolates of Chlamydia psittaci from poultry and other birds. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 31: 134–137CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vanrompay, D., Ducatelle, R., Haesebrouk, F. and Hendrickx, W. (1993b) Primary pathogenicity of an European isolate of Chlamydia psittaci from turkey poults. Veterinary Microbiology 38: 103–113CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vanrompay, D., Ducatelle, R. and Haesebrouk, F. (1993c) Chlamydia isolates from pigeons: determination of serovar and pathogenicity for turkeys. Vlaams Diergeneeskundig Tijdschrift 62: 6–9Google Scholar
Vanrompay, D., Ducatelle, R. and Haesebrouk, F. (1994) Pathogenicity for turkeys of Chlamydia psittaci strains belonging to the avian serovars A, B and D. Avian Patholology 23: 247–262CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Walker, J.W., Glass, K.A., Hand, S.E., Jones, F.M. and Pessara, L.W. (1976) Cooperative state-federal turkey ornithosis task force, Texas, 1974. Avian Diseases 20: 355–360CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ward, G. and Birge, J. (1952) Psittacosis (ornithosis) following contact with pheasants. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 150: 217–219CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ward, G.C., Hildinger, A.L., Morrisey, R.A. and Birge, J.P. (1954) Psittacosis-lymphogranuloma venerum virus antibodies in man. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 155: 1146–1150CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wilcke, B.W. Jr., Newcomer, C.E., Anver, M.R., Simmons, J.L. and Nace, G.W. (1983) Isolation of Chlamydia psittaci from natural infected African clawed frogs (Xenopus laevis). Infection and Immunity 41: 789–794CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Williams, L.P. Jr. (1989) Review of the epidemiology of chlamydiosis in the United States. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 195: 1518–1521Google ScholarPubMed
Wills, J.M. (1986) Chlamydia zoonoses. Journal of Small Animal Practice 27: 717–731CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wilsmore, A.J., Dawson, M., Trower, C.J., Venables, C. and Arthur, M.J. (1986) Ovine enzootic abortion: field observations on naturally acquired and vaccine-elicited delayed type hypersensitivity to Chlamydia psittaci (ovis). Veterinary Record 118: 331–332CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wilsmore, A.J., Izzard, K.A., Dagnall, G.J., Wilsmore, B.C. and Woodland, R.M. (1990a) Protection of ewes vaccinated with A22 strain Chlamydia psittaci (ovis) against challenge in pregnancy with homologous and heterologous strains of the organism. British Veterinary Journal 146: 349–353CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wilsmore, A.J., Wilsmore, B.C., Dagnall, G.J., Izzard, K.A., Woodland, R.M., Dawson, M. and Venables, C. (1990b) Clinical and immunological responses of ewes following vaccination with an experimental formalin-inactivated Chlamydia psittaci (ovis) vaccine and subsequent challenge with the live organism during pregnancy. British Veterinary Journal 146: 341–348CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Winsor, D. K. and Grimes, J.E. (1988) Relationship between infectivity and cytopathology for L-929 cells, membrane proteins, and antigenicity of avian isolates of Chlamydia psittaci. Avian Diseases 32: 421–431CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wreghitt, T.G., Chalmers, W.S.K. and Caul, E.O. (1985) Chlamydia psittaci infection in a man and his birds. Journal of Clinical Pathology 38: 1080–1081CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wreghitt, T.G., Robinson, V., Caul, E.O., Paul, I.D. and Gatley, S. (1988) The development and evaluation of a μ-capture ELISA detecting chlamydia-specific IgM. Epidemiology and Infection 101: 387–395CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wreghitt, T.G., Barker, C.E., Treharne, J.D., Phipps, J.M., Robinson, V. and Buttery, R.B. (1990) A study of human respiratory tract chlamydial infections in Cambridgeshire 1986–1988. Epidemiology and Infection 104: 479–488CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wuthe, H., Kramer, H., Bergmann, K.-C., Pippig, H., Heinze, R. and Vogel, J. (1983) Immunological and pathophysiological study of persons employed in factory poultry farming. Part 2: Lung function tests (in German). Praxis und Klinik der Pneumologie 37: 270–272.Google Scholar
Wyrick, P.B. and Richmond, S.J. (1989) Biology of chlamydiae. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 195: 1507–1512Google ScholarPubMed