Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-rcrh6 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-24T10:45:08.711Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Avian influenza in poultry

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  12 November 2008

D.J. ALEXANDER  and
I. CAPUA
D.J. ALEXANDER*
Affiliation:
OIE, FAO and European Community Reference Laboratory for Newcastle Disease and Avian Influenza, Virology Department, Veterinary Laboratories Agency Weybridge, Addlestone, Surrey, UK
I. CAPUA
Affiliation:
OIE, FAO and National Reference Laboratory for Newcastle Disease and Avian Influenza, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, Viale dell'Università 10. 35020 – Legnaro, Padova, Italy
*
Corresponding author: [email protected]
Get access

Abstract

Influenza A viruses that infect poultry can be divided into two groups. Very virulent viruses cause highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI), with flock mortality as high as 100%. These viruses have been restricted to subtypes H5 and H7, although not all H5 and H7 viruses cause HPAI. All other viruses cause a milder, primarily respiratory, disease (LPAI), unless exacerbated. Until recently, HPAI viruses were rarely isolated from wild birds, but for LPAI viruses extremely high isolation rates have been recorded in surveillance studies. Influenza viruses may infect all types of domestic or captive birds in all areas of the world. The frequency with which primary infections occur in any type of bird usually depends on the degree of contact there is with feral birds. Secondary spread is typically associated with human involvement, either by birds or bird product movement or by transferring infective faeces from infected to susceptible birds, but potentially wild birds can be involved. In recent years the frequency of HPAI outbreaks appears to have increased and there have been particularly costly outbreaks of HPAI in densely populated poultry areas in Italy, The Netherlands and Canada. In each outbreak millions of birds were slaughtered to bring the outbreaks under control. Since the 1990s, AI infections due to two subtypes have been widespread in poultry across a large area of the World. LPAI H9N2 appears to have spread across the whole of Asia in that time and has become endemic in poultry in many of the affected countries. However, these outbreaks have been overshadowed by the H5N1 HPAI virus, initially isolated in China that has now spread in poultry and/or wild birds throughout Asia and into Europe and Africa, resulting in the death or culling of hundreds of millions of poultry and posing a significant zoonosis threat. To date control methods seem to have been unsuccessful on the larger scale and HPAI H5N1 outbreaks continue to be reported.

Keywords

avianinfluenzapoultryepidemiologycontrol
Type
Review Article
Information
World's Poultry Science Journal , Volume 64 , Issue 4 , December 2008 , pp. 513 - 532
Copyright
Copyright © Crown Copyright, Veterinary Laboratories Agency

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

AKEY, B.L. (2002) Low pathogenicity H7N2 avian influenza outbreak in Virginia during 2002. Avian Diseases 47: 1099-1103.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
ALEXANDER, D.J. (2001) Newcastle disease – The Gordon Memorial Lecture. British Poultry Science 42: 5-22.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
ALEXANDER, D.J. (2002) Report on avian influenza in the Eastern Hemisphere during 1997-2002. Avian Diseases 47: 792-797.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
ALEXANDER, D.J. (2006) Avian influenza viruses and human health. In: SCHUDEL A., LOMBARD M. (Eds) Proceedings of the OIE/FAO International Conference on Avian Influenza. Developments in Biology volume 124 Basel Karger p 77-84.Google Scholar
ALEXANDER, D.J. (2007) Summary of avian influenza activity in Europe, Asia, Africa and Australasia 2002-2006. Avian Diseases 51: 161-166.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
ALEXANDER, D.J. (2008) Chapter 2.3.4 Avian Influenza. Manual of diagnostic tests and vaccines for terrestrial animals 6th edition. World Organisation for Animal Health, Paris, France. http://www.oie.int/eng/normes/MMANUAL/A_00037.htm.Google Scholar
ALEXANDER, D.J., ALLAN, W.H., PARSONS, D. and PARSONS, G. (1978) The pathogenicity of four avian influenza viruses for chickens, turkeys and ducks. Research in Veterinary Science 24: 242-247.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
ALEXANDER, D.J., PARSONS, G. and MANVELL, R.J. (1986) Experimental assessment of the pathogenicity of eight avian influenza A viruses of H5 subtype for chickens, turkeys, ducks and quail. Avian Pathology 15: 647-662.Google ScholarPubMed
BANKOWSKI, R.A. (1983) Report of the Committee on transmissible diseases of poultry and other avian species. Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of the United States Animal Health Association 86: 482-492.Google Scholar
BANKOWSKI R.A., (1985) . Report of the Committee on Transmissible Diseases of Poultry and Other Avian Species. Proceedings of the 88th Annual Meeting of the U.S. Animal Health Association, p474-483.Google Scholar
BANKS, J., SPEIDEL, E.C., HARRIS P.A., and ALEXANDER, D.J. (2000) Phylogenetic analysis of influenza A viruses of H9 haemagglutinin subtype. Avian Pathology 29: 353-360.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
BEARD, C.W., SCHNITZLEIN, W.M. and TRIPATHY, D.N. (1991) Protection of chickens against highly pathogenic avian influenza virus (H5N2) by recombinant fowlpox viruses. Avian Diseases 35: 356-359.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
BECKER, W.B. (1966) The isolation and classification of tern virus: Influenza virus A/tern/South Africa/1961. Journal of Hygiene 64: 309-320.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
CAMPBELL, G. (1998) Report of the Irish national reference laboratory for 1996 and 1997. Proceedings of the Joint Fourth Annual Meetings of the National Newcastle Disease and Avian Influenza Laboratories of Countries of the European Union, Brussels, 1997. p13.Google Scholar
CAPUA, I. and ALEXANDER, D.J. (2004) Avian influenza: recent developments. Avian Pathology 33: 393-404.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
CAPUA, I. and ALEXANDER, D.J. (2006) The challenge of avian influenza to the veterinary community. Avian Pathology 35: 189-205.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
CAPUA, I. and ALEXANDER, D.J. (2008) Ecology, epidemiology and human health implications of avian influenza viruses: why do we need to share genetic data? Zoonoses and Public Health 55: 2-13.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
CAPUA, I. and MARANGON, S. (2000) Review article: The avian influenza epidemic in Italy, 1999-2000. Avian Pathology 29: 289-294.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
CAPUA, I. and MARANGON, S. (2007) The use of vaccination to combat multiple introductions of notifiable avian influenza viruses of the H5 and H7 subtypes between 2000 and 2006 in Italy. Vaccine 25: 4987-4995.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
CAPUA I., , CATTOLI, G., MARANGON, S., BORTOLOTTI, L. and ORTALI, G. (2002) Strategies for the control of avian influenza in Italy. Veterinary Record 150: 223.Google ScholarPubMed
CAPUA, I., MARANGON, S., DALA POZZA, M., TERREGINO, C. and CATTOLI, G. (2003) Avian influenza in Italy 1997-2001. Avian Diseases 47:839-843.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
CAPUA, I., MUTINELLI, F., BOZZA, M.A., TERREGINO, C. and CATTOLI, G. (2000) Highly pathogenic avian influenza (H7N1) in ostriches (Struthio camelus). Avian Pathology 29: 643-646.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
CAPUA, I., TERREGINO, C., CATTOLI, G. and TOFFAN, A. (2004) Increased resistance of vaccinated turkeys to experimental infection with an H7N3 low-pathogenicity avian influenza virus. Avian Pathology 33(2): 158-63.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
CEC, (2006a) Council Directive 2005/94/EC of 20 December 2005 on Community measures for the control of avian influenza and repealing 92/40/EEC. Official Journal of European Commission, L10, 16-65.Google Scholar
CEC, (2006b) Commission Decision 2006/437/EC approving a diagnostic manual for avian influenza as provided for in Council Directive 2005/94/EC. Official Journal of European Commission, L237, 1-27.Google Scholar
CHEN, H., DENG, G., TIAN, G., LI, Y., JIAO, P., ZHANG, L., LIU, Z., WEBSTER, R.G. and Yu, K. (2004) The evolution of H5N1 influenza viruses in ducks in southern China. PNAS 101: 10452-10457.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
CHEN, H., SMITH, G.J.D., ZHANG, S.Y., QIN, K., WANG, J., LI, K.S., WEBSTER, R.G., PEIRIS, J.S.M. and GUAN, Y. (2005) H5N1 virus outbreak in migratory waterfowl. Nature 436: 191-192.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
D'APRILE P.N., (1986) . Current situation of avian influenza in Italy and approaches to its control. In: MCFERRAN J.B. & MCNULTY M.S. (Eds) Acute Virus Infections of Poultry, pp. 29-35 (Martinus Nijhoff, Dordrecht, The Netherlands).Google Scholar
DEFRA, (2005) Epidemiology report on avian influenza in a quarantine premises in Essex. http://defraweb/animalh/disease/notifiable/disease/ai-epidemicrep111105.pdf.Google Scholar
DE WIT, J.J., KOCH, G., FABRI, T.H.F. and ELBERS, A.R.W. (2004) A cross sectional serological survey of the Dutch commercial poultry population for the presence of low pathogenic avian influenza infections. Avian Pathology 33: 565-570.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
ELBERS, A.R., KAMPS, B. and KOCH, G. (2004a) Performance of gross lesions at postmortem for the detection of outbreaks during the avian influenza A virus (H7N7) epidemic in The Netherlands in 2003. Avian Pathology 33: 418-422.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
ELBERS, A.R., FABRI, T.H., DE VRIES, T.S., DE WIT, J.J., PIJPERS, A. and KOCH, G. (2004b) The highly pathogenic avian influenza A (H7N7) virus epidemic in The Netherlands in 2003 /lessons learned from the first five outbreaks. Avian Diseases 48: 691-705.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
ELBERS, A.R.W., KOCH, G. and BOUMA, A. (2005) Performance of clinical signs in poultry for the detection of outbreaks during the avian influenza A (H7N7) epidemic in The Netherlands in 2003. Avian Pathology 34: 181-187.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
ELLIS, T.M., BOUSFIELD, R.B., BISSETT, L.A., DYRTING, K.C., LUK, G.S.M., TSIM, S.T., STURM-RAMIREZ, K., WEBSTER, R.G., GUAN, Y. and PEIRIS, J.S.M. (2004) Investigation of outbreaks of highly pathogenic H5N1 avian influenza in waterfowl and wild birds in Hong Kong in late 2002. Avian Pathology 33: 492-505.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
EFSA (EUROPEAN FOOD STANDARD AGENCY) SCIENTIFIC PANEL ON ANIMAL HEALTH AND ANIMAL WELFARE, (2005) Animal health and welfare aspects of Avian Influenza Annex to The EFSA Journal. 266: 1-21.Google Scholar
FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED, (2004) FAO Recommendations on the Prevention, Control and Eradication of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza (HPAI) in Asia September 2004. FAO Position paper. http://www.fao.org/ag/againfo/subjects/en/health/diseases-cards/27septrecomm.pdf Accessed 04/02/2008.Google Scholar
FIORETTI, A., MENNA, L.F. and CALABRIA, M. (1998) The epidemiological situation of avian influenza in Italy during 1996-1997. Proceedings of the Joint Fourth Annual Meetings of the National Newcastle Disease and Avian Influenza Laboratories of Countries of the European Union, Brussels, 1997. p17-22.Google Scholar
GARCIA-GARCIA, J., RODRIGUEZ, V.H. and HERNANDEZ, M.A. (1998) Experimental studies in field trials with recombinant fowlpox vaccine in broilers in Mexico. Proceedings of the Fourth International Symposium on Avian Influenza, Athens, Georgia, USA. Swayne D.E. & Slemons R.D., eds. U.S. Animal Health Association, p245-252.Google Scholar
GE, J. DENG, G., , WEN, Z., TIAN, G., WANG, Y., SHI, J., WANG, X., LI, Y., HU, S., JIANG, Y., YANG, C., YU, K., BU, Z. and CHEN, H. (2007) Newcastle disease virus-based live attenuated vaccine completely protects chickens and mice from lethal challenge of homologous and heterologous H5N1 avian influenza viruses. Journal Virology 81: 150-158.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
GLASS, S.E., NAQI, S.A. and GRUMBLES, L.A. (1981) Isolation of avian influenza virus in Texas. Avian Diseases 25: 545-549.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
HALVORSON D.A., (1998) . Strengths and weaknesses of vaccines as a control tool. Proceedings of the Fourth International Symposium on Avian Influenza, Athens, Georgia, USA. Swayne D.E. & Slemons R.D., eds. U.S. Animal Health Association, p223-227.Google Scholar
HALVORSON, D.A., FRAME, D.D., FRIENDSHUH, A.J. and SHAW, D.P. (1998) Outbreaks of low pathogenicity avian influenza in USA. Proceedings of the 4th International Symposium on Avian Influenza, Athens, Georgia. U.S. Animal Health Association p 36-46.Google Scholar
HALVORSON, D.A., KARUNAKARAN, D., SENNE, D., KELLEHER, C., BAILEY, C., ABRAHAM, A., HINSHAW, V. and NEWMAN J., (1983) Epizootiology of avian influenza - simultaneous monitoring of sentinel ducks and turkeys in Minnesota. Avian Diseases 27: 77-85.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
HALVORSON, D.A., KELLEHER, C.J., POMEROY, B.S., SIVANANDAN, V., ABRAHAM, A.S., NEWMAN, J.A., KARUNAKARAN, D., POSS, P.E., SENNE, D.A. and PEARSON, J.E. (1987) Surveillance procedures for avian influenza. Proceedings of the Second International Symposium on Avian Influenza, 1986. University of Wisconsin, Madison pp 155-63Google Scholar
HALVORSON, D.A., FRAME, D.D., FRIENDSHUH, A.J. and SHAW, D.P. (1998) Outbreaks of low pathogenicity avian influenza in USA. Proceedings of the 4th International Symposium on Avian Influenza, Athens, Georgia, 1997. U.S. Animal Health Association pp 36-46.Google Scholar
HOMME, P.J., EASTERDAY, B.C. and ANDERSON, D.P. (1970) Avian influenza virus infections. II Epizootiology of influenza A/turkey/Wisconsin/1966 virus in turkeys. Avian Diseases 14: 240-247.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
HUMBRED, J., GUAN, Y. and WEBSTER R.G., (2006) Comparison of the replication of influenza A viruses in Chinese ring-necked pheasants and chukar partridges. Journal of Virology 80: 2151-2161.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
KAWAOKA, Y., CHAMBERS, T.M., SLADEN, W.L. and WEBSTER, R.G. (1988) Is the gene pool of influenza viruses in shorebirds and gulls different from that in wild ducks? Virology 163: 247-250.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
KING, L.J. (1984) How APHIS 'war room' mobilized to fight AI. Broiler Industry 47: 44-51.Google Scholar
IRVINE, R.M., BANKS, J., LONDT, B.Z., LISTER, S.A., MANVELL, R.J., OUTTRIM, L., RUSSELL, C., COX, W.J., CEERAZ, V., SHELL, W., LANDEG, F., WILESMITH, J.W., ALEXANDER, D.J. and BROWN I.H., (2007) An outbreak of highly pathogenic avian influenza caused by Asian lineage H5N1 virus in turkeys in Great Britain in January 2007. Veterinary Record 161: 100-101.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
JOHNSON, D.C. (1984) AI task force veterinarian offers practical suggestions. Broiler Industry 47: 58-59.Google Scholar
LANG, G. (1982) A review of influenza in Canadian domestic and wild birds. Proceedings of the First International Symposium on Avian influenza, 1981. Carter Composition Corporation, Richmond, USA p21-27.Google Scholar
LEE C.W, SENNE D.A. and SUAREZ D.L., (2004) Effect of vaccine use in the evolution of Mexican lineage H5N2 avian influenza virus. Journal Virology 78 (15): 8372-8381.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
LI, C. YU, K. TIAN, G. YU, D. JING, B. PING, J., and CHEN, H. (2005) Evolution of H9N2 influenza viruses from domestic poultry in mainland China. Virology 340: 70-83.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
LIU, H.Q., PENG, D.X., CHENG, J., JIA, L.J., ZHANG, RK. and LIU, X.F. (2002) Genetic mutations of the haemagglutinin genes of H9N2 subtype avian influenza viruses. Journal Yangzhou University, Agriculture and Life Sciences Edition 23: 6-9.Google Scholar
LIU, J., XIAO, H., LEI, F., ZHU, Q., QIN, K., ZHANG, X., ZHAO, D., WANG, G., FENG, Y., MA, J., LIU, W., WANG, J. and GAO G.F., (2005) Highly pathogenic H5N1 virus infection in migratory birds. Science 309: 1206.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
LYSCHOW, D., WERNER, O., METTENLEITER, T.C. and FUCHS, W. (2001) Protection of chickens from lethal avian influenza A virus infection by live-virus vaccination with infectious laryngotracheitis virus recombinants expressing the hemagglutinin (H5) gene. Vaccine 19: 4249-4259.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
MARAROVA, N.V., OZAKI, H., KIDA, H., WEBSTER, R.G. and PEREZ, D.R. (2003) Replication and transmission of influenza viruses in Japanese quail. Virology 310: 8-15.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
MARTIN, V., SIMS, L., LUBROTH, J., PFEIFFER, D., SLLINGENBERGH, J. and and DOMENECH, J. (2006) Epidemiology and ecology of highly pathogenic avian influenza with particular emphasis on South East Asia. Proceedings of the OIE/FAO International Conference on Avian Influenza. SCHUDEL A., LOMBARD M. (Eds) Developments in Biology p124 Basel Karger pp 23-36.Google Scholar
McCAPES, R.H. and BANKOWSKI, R.A. (1985) Use of avian influenza vaccines in California turkey breeders - medical rationale. Proceedings of the Second International Symposium on Avian Influenza, Athens, Georgia, USA. U.S. Animal Health Association, p271-278.Google Scholar
MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE, P.R. CHINA (2006) Poultry avian influenza vaccination in China. http://www.agri.gov.cn/ztzl/gdztzl/P020061023368529330005.pdf Accessed 04.02.2008Google Scholar
MO, I.P., SONG, C.S., KIM, K.S. and and RHEE, J.C. (1998) An occurrence of non-highly pathogenic avian influenza in Korea. Proceedings of the 4th International Symposium on Avian Influenza, Athens, Georgia. 1997. U.S. Animal Health Association pp 379-383.Google Scholar
MOHAN, R., SAIF, Y.M., ERICKSON, G.A., GUSTAFSON, G.A. and EASTERDAY B.C., (1981) Serologic and epidemiologic evidence of infection in turkeys with an agent related to swine influenza virus. Avian Diseases 25: 11-16.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
NAEEM, K. (1998) The avian influenza H7N3 outbreak in South Central Asia. Proceedings of the Fourth International Symposium on Avian Influenza, Athens, Georgia, USA. Swayne D.E. & Slemons R.D., eds. U.S. Animal Health Association, p31-35.Google Scholar
NAEEM, K., SIDDIQUE, N., AYAZ, M. and JALAEE, M.A. (2007) Avian influenza in Pakistan: Outbreaks of low- and high-pathogenicity avian influenza in Pakistan during 2003-2006. Avian diseases 50: 189-193.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
NAKAYA, T., CROS, J., PARK, M-S., NAKAYA, Y., SAGRERA, A., VILLAR, E., GARCIA-SASTRE, A. and PALESE, P. (2001) Recombinant Newcastle disease virus as a vaccine vector. Journal Virology 74: 11868-11873.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
NARAYAN, O., LANG, G. and ROUSE, B.T. (1969) A new influenza A virus infection in turkeys. V. Pathology of the experimental disease by strain turkey-Ontario 7732-66. Archiv fur die Gesamte Virusforschung 26: 166-182.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
OIE, (2005) World Health Organization for Animal Health, Terrestrial Animal Health Code, 14th ed Chapter 2.7.12. OIE, Paris pp294-300. Available online at: www.oie.int/eng/normes/mcode/en_chapter 2.7.12.htm.Google Scholar
OIE, (2008) Update on avian influenza in animals (type H5), 18 February 2008. http://www.oie.int/downld/AVIAN%20INFLUENZA/A_AI-Asia.htmGoogle Scholar
OLSEN, B., MUNSTER, V.J., WALLENSTEN, A., WALDENSTROM, J., OSTERHAUS, A.D.M.E. and FOUCHIER, R.A.M. (2006) Global patterns of influenza A virus in wild birds. Science 31: 2384-2388.Google Scholar
PASICK, J., HANDEL, K., ROBINSON, J., COPPS, J., RIDD, D., HILLS, K., KEHLER, H., COTTAM-BIRT, C., NEUFELD, J., BERHANE, Y. and CZUB, S. (2005) Intersegmental recombination between the haemagglutinin and matrix genes was responsible for the emergence of a highly pathogenic H7N3 avian influenza virus in British Columbia. Journal of General Virology 86: 727-731.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
PERDUE, M., CRAWFORD, J., GARCIA, M., LATIMER, J. and SWAYNE, D.E. (1998) Occurrence and possible mechanisms of cleavage site insertions in the avian influenza hemagglutinin gene. Proceedings of the 4th International Symposium on Avian Influenza, Athens, Georgia. U.S. Animal Health Association. pp182-193.Google Scholar
PEREIRA, H.G., TUMOVA, B. and LAW, V. (1965) Avian influenza A viruses Bulletin of the WHO 32: 855-860.Google ScholarPubMed
PEREZ, D.R., WEBBY, R.J. and WEBSTER, R. (2003) Land-based birds as potential disseminators of avian/mammalian reassortant influenza A viruses. Avian Diseases 47: 1114-1117.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
PERRONCITO, E. (1878) Epizoozia tifoide nei gallinacei. Annali Accademia Agricoltura Torino 21: 87-126.Google Scholar
PHILIPPA, J., BAAS, C., BEYER, W., BESTELBROER, T., FOUCHIER, R., SMITH, D., SCHAFTENAAR, W. and OSTERHAUS, A. (2007) Vaccination against highly pathogenic avian influenza H5N1 virus in zoos using an adjuvanted inactivated H5N2 vaccine, Vaccine 25: 3800-3808.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
POMEROY, B.S. (1982) Avian influenza in the United States (1964-1980). Proceedings of the First International Symposium on Avian Influenza, 1981. Carter Composition Corporation, Richmond, USA, pp. 13-17.Google Scholar
POMEROY, B.S. (1987) Avian influenza - Avian influenza in turkeys in the USA. Proceedings of the Second International Symposium on Avian Influenza, 1986. University of Wisconsin, Madison pp 14-21.Google Scholar
PRICE, R.J. (1982) Commercial avian influenza vaccines. Proceedings of the First Avian Influenza Symposium, 1981. Carter Composition, Richmond, USA, 178-179.Google Scholar
QIAO, C.L., YU, K.Z., JIANG, Y.P., JIA, Y.Q., TIAN, G.B., LIU, M., DENG, G.H., WANG, X.R., MENG, Q.W. and TANG, X.Y. (2003) Protection of chickens against highly lethal H5N1 and H7N1 avian influenza viruses with a recombinant fowlpox virus co-expressing H5 haemagglutinin and N1 neuraminidase genes. Avian Pathology 32: 25-31.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
ROTT, R. (1992) The pathogenic determinant of influenza virus . Veterinary Microbiology 33: 303-310.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
SENNE, D.A., PANIGRAHY, B., KAWAOKA, Y., PEARSON, J.E., SUSS, J., LIPKIND, M., KIDA, H. and WEBSTER, R.G. (1996) Survey of the hemagglutinin (HA) cleavage site sequence of H5 and H7 avian influenza viruses: Amino acid sequence at the HA cleavage site as a marker of pathogenicity potential. Avian Diseases 40: 425-437.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
SENNE, D.A., SUAREZ, D.L., STALLNECHT, D.E., PEDERSEN, J.C. and PANIGRAHY, B. (2006) Ecology and epidemiology of avian influenza in North and South America. Proceedings of the OIE/FAO International Conference on Avian Influenza. SCHUDEL A., LOMBARD M. (Eds) Developments in Biology p124 Basel Karger pp 37-44.Google Scholar
SHARP, G.B., KAWAOKA, Y., WRIGHT, S.M., TURNER, B., HINSHAW, V.S. and WEBSTER, R.G. (1993) Wild ducks are the reservoir for only a limited number of influenza A subtypes. Epidemiology and Infection 110: 161-176.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
SIMS, L.D. (2003) Avian influenza in Hong Kong. Avian Diseases 47: 832-838.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
SIMS, L.D., DOMENCH, J., BENIGNO, C., KAHN, S., KAMAYA, A., LUBROTH, J., MARTIN V., and ROEDER, P. (2005) Origin and evolution of highly pathogenic H5N1 avian influenza in Asia. Veterinary Record 157: 159-164.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
SONGSERM, T., JAM-ON, R., SAE-HENG, N., MEEMAK, N., HULSE-POST, D.J., STURM-RAMIREZ, K.M. and WEBSTER, R.G. (2006) Domestic ducks and H5N1 influenza epidemic, Thailand. Emerging Infectious Diseases 12: 1-12.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
STALLKNECHT, D.E. and SHANE, S.M. (1988) Host range of avian influenza virus in free-living birds. Veterinary Research Communications 12:125-141.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
STIENEKE-GROBER, A., VEY, M., ANGLIKER, H., SHAW, E., THOMAS, G., ROBERTS, C. KLENK, H-D., and GARTEN, W. (1992) Influenza virus hemagglutinin with multibasic cleavage site is activated by furin, a subtilisin endoprotease. EMBO Journal 11: 2407-2414.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
STURM-RAMIREZ, K.M., HULSE-POST, D.J., GOVORKOVA, E.A., HUMBERD, J., SEILER, P., PUTHAVATHANA, P., BURANATHAI, C., NGUYEN, T.D., CHAISINGH, A., LONG, H.T., NAIPOSPOS, T.S.P., CHEN, H., ELLIS, T.M., GUAN, Y., PEIRIS, J.S.M. and WEBSTER, R.G. (2005) Are ducks contributing to the endemicity of highly pathogenic H5N1 influenza virus in Asia? Journal of Virology 79: 11269-11279.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
SUAREZ, D.L., SENNE, D.A., BANKS, J., BROWN, I.H., ESSEN, S.C., LEE, C.W., MANVELL, R.J., MATHIEU-BENSON, C., MARENO, V., PEDERSEN, J., PANIGRAHY, B., ROJAS, H., SPACKMAN, E. and ALEXANDER, D.J. (2004) Recombination resulting in virulence shift in avian influenza outbreak, Chile. Emerging Infectious Diseases 10: 693-699.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
SUBBARAO, K., CHEN, H., SWAYNE, D., MINGAY, L. FODOR, E., , BROWNLEE, G., XU, X., LU X., , KATZ, J., COX, N. and MATSUOKA, Y. (2003) Evaluation of a genetically modified reassortant H5N1 influenza A virus vaccine candidate generated by plasmid-based reverse genetics. Virology 305: 192-200.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
SWAYNE, D.E. (2001) Avian influenza vaccine use during 2001. Proceedings of the 104th annual meeting of the US Animal Health Association. USAHA, Richmond, Virginia, USA, p469-471.Google Scholar
SWAYNE, D.E. (2003) Vaccines for list A poultry diseases; emphasis on avian influenza. Developments in Biologicals 114: 201-212.Google Scholar
SWAYNE, D.E. and AKEY, B. (2004) . Avian influenza control strategies in the United States of America. Proceedings of the Frontis Workshop on Avian Influenza Prevention and Control, Wageningen, The Netherlands, 13-15 October 2003, R.S. SCHRIJVER & KOCH G. (Eds) Springer, Dordrecht p113-132.Google Scholar
SWAYNE, D.E. and ALEXANDER, D.J. (1994) Confirmation of nephrotropism and nephropathogenicity of three low-pathogenic chicken-origin influenza viruses for chickens. Avian Pathology 23: 345-352.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
SWAYNE, D.E. and MICKLE, T.R. (1997) Protection of chickens against highly pathogenic Mexican-origin H5N2 avian influenza virus by a recombinant fowlpox vaccine. Proceedings the 100th Annual Meeting of the US Animal Health Association, Little Rock, USA, 1996, p557-563.Google Scholar
TERREGINO, C., DE NARDI, R., GUBERTI, V., SCREMIN, M., RAFFINI, E., MORENO MARTIN, A., CATTOLI, G., BONFANTI, L. and CAPUA, I. (2007) Active surveillance for avian influenza viruses in wild birds and backyard flocks in Northern Italy during 2004 to 2006. Avian Pathology 36: 337-344.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
TIAN, G., ZHANG, S., LI, Y., BU, Z., LIU, P., ZHOU, J., LI, C., SHI, J., YU, K. and CHEN, H. (2005) Protective efficacy in chickens, geese and ducks of an H5N1-inactivated vaccine developed by reverse genetics. Virology 341: 153-162.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
TODD, C. and RICE J.P., (1930) Fowl Plague. In: A system of bacteriology Vol. 7, Virus Diseases. p 219-230.Google Scholar
TUMPEY, T.M., ALVAREZ, R., SWAYNE, D.E. and SUAREZ, D.L. (2005) A diagnostic aid for differentiating infected from vaccinated poultry based on antibodies to the nonstructural (NS1) protein of influenza A virus. Journal Clinical Microbiology 43: 676-683.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
UTTERBACK, W. (1984) Update on avian influenza through February 21, 1984 in Pennsylvania and Virginia. Proceedings of the 33rd Western. Poultry Disease Conference, 1984. pp 4-7.Google Scholar
VAN DEN BERG, T., LAMBRECHT, B. and VAN BORM, S. (2005) . Highly Pathogenic H5N1 Influenza Virus in Smuggled Thai Eagles, Belgium. Emerging Infectious Disease s 11: 702-705.Google Scholar
VAN DER GOOT, J.A., KOCH, G., DE JONG, M.C.M. and VAN BOVEN, M. (2005) Quantification of the effect of vaccination on transmission of avian influenza (H7N7) in chickens. Proceedings National Academy Science USA 102: 18141-18146.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
VAN DER GOOT, J.A., VAN BOVEN, M., KOCH, G. and DE JONG, M.C.M. (2006) Proceedings of the Joint 11th Annual Meetings of the National Laboratories for Newcastle Disease and Avian Influenza of EU Member States, VAG Uccle Brussels, 2005 p130-133. Available at http://ec.europa.eu/food/animal/diseases/controlmeasures/avian/crls_proceedings_en.htm.Google Scholar
VASFI MARANDI, M., BOZORGMEHRI FARD, M.H. and HASHEMZADEH, M. (2002) Efficacy of inactivated H9N2 avian influenza vaccine against non-highly pathogenic A/chicken/Iran/ZMT-173/1999. Archives Razi Institute 53: 23-32.Google Scholar
VEITS, J., WIESNER, D., FUCHS, W., HOFFMANN, B., GRNZOW, H., STARICK, E., MUNDT, E., SCHIRRMEIER, H., MEBATSION, T., METTENLEITER, T.C. and ROMER-OBERDORFER, A. (2006) Newcastle disease virus expressing H5 hemagglutinin gene protects chickens against Newcastle disease and avian influenza. Proceedings National Academy Science USA, 103: 8197-8202.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
VEY, M., ORLICH, M., ADLER, S., KLENK, H-D., ROTT, R. and GARTEN, W. (1992) Haemagglutinin activation of pathogenic avian influenza viruses of serotype H7 requires the recognition motif R-X-R/K-R. Virology 188: 408-413.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
VILLARREAL-CHAVEZ, C. (2007) AI control experiences in the Americas: a regional summary. OIE/FAO Conference on Vaccination: a Tool for the Control of Avian Influenza, Verona Italy.Google Scholar
VILLARREAL-CHAVEZ, C. and RIVERA CRUZ, E. (2003) An update on avian influenza in Mexico. In: Proceedings of the 5th International Symposium on Avian Influenza. Georgia Center for Continuing Education, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, USA, 14-17 April 2002. Avian Diseases., 47: 1002-1005.Google Scholar
WEBSTER, R.G., PEIRIS, M., CHEN, H. and GUAN, Y. (2006) H5N1 outbreaks and enzootic influenza. Emerging Infectious Diseases 12: 3-8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
WELLS, R.J.H. (1963) An outbreak of fowl plague in turkeys. Veterinary Record 75: 783-786.Google Scholar
WERNER, O. (1998) Avian influenza - Situation in Germany 1995-1997. Proceedings of the Joint Fourth Annual Meetings of the National Newcastle Disease and Avian Influenza Laboratories of Countries of the European Union, Brussels, 1997. pp 9-10.Google Scholar
WERNER, O. (1999) Avian influenza - Situation in Germany 1997/1998. Proceedings of the Joint Fifth Annual Meetings of the National Newcastle Disease and Avian Influenza Laboratories of Countries of the European Union, Vienna 1998. pp 10-11.Google Scholar
WESTBURY, H.A., TURNER, A.J. and AMON, C. (1981) Transmissibility of two avian influenza A viruses (H7N7) between chicks. Avian Pathology 10: 481-487.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
WESTBURY, H.A., TURNER, A.J. and KOVESDY, L. (1979) The pathogenicity of three Australian fowl plague viruses for chickens, turkeys and ducks. Veterinary Microbiology 4: 223-234.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
WOOD, G.W., MCCAULEY, J.W., BASHIRUDDIN, J.B. and ALEXANDER, D.J. (1993) Deduced amino acid sequences at the haemagglutinin cleavage site of avian influenza A viruses of H5 and H7 subtypes. Archives of Virology 130: 209-217.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
XU, X., SUBBARAO, K., COX, N.J. and GUO, Y. (1999) Genetic characterization of the pathogenic influenza A/goose/Guandong/1/96 (H5N1) virus: similarity of its haemagglutinin gene to those of H5N1 viruses from the 1997 outbreaks in Hong Kong. Virology 261: 15-19.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
YASSINE, H.M., LEE, C.W., SUAREZ, D.L. and SAIF, Y.M. (2007) Genetic and antigenic relatedness of H3 subtype influenza A viruses isolated from avian and mammalian species. Vaccine 26: 966-977.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
ZANELLA, A., POLI, G. and BIGNAMI, M. (1981) Avian influenza: Approaches in the control of disease with inactivated vaccines in oil emulsion. Proceedings of the First International Symposium on Avian influenza, 1981. Carter Composition Corporation, Richmond, USA, p. 180-183.Google Scholar