Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-g8jcs Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-28T14:21:47.511Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Infectious components of broiler lameness: a review

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  18 September 2007

Andrew Butterworth
Andrew Butterworth
Affiliation:
Department of Clinical Veterinary Science, University of Bristol, Langford, North Somerset BS40 5DU, UK
Get access

Abstract

Broiler lameness (syn. leg weakness) is a cause of commercial loss through mortality, culling and reduced performance and is a welfare concern both within and outside the broiler industry. Many of the cases of lameness are associated with infection in bone, joint or integument. Several groups of organisms have the potential to cause disease resulting in lameness, but the most common causes are restricted to a small group of infectious organisms. These bacterial, viral and fungal infections and their associated pathologies are systematically described.

Keywords

Bonediseaseimmunosuppressioninfection, lamenessleg weaknesspoultry, welfare
Type
Research Article
Information
World's Poultry Science Journal , Volume 55 , Issue 4 , December 1999 , pp. 327 - 352
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 1999

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Al-Afaleq, A.I. and Jones, R.C. (1990) Localisation of avian reovirus in the hock joints of chicks after entry through broken skin. Research in Veterinary Science 48: 381–382CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Al-Afaleq, A.I. and Jones, R.C. (1991) A trypsin-sensitive avian reovirus: isolation and experimental infection of poults and chicks. Avian Pathology 20: 5–16CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Alderson, M., Speers, D., Emslie, K. and Nade, S. (1986) Acute haematogenous osteomyelitis and septic arthritis – a single disease. Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery 68B: 268–274Google Scholar
Alexander, D.J. (1996) Paramyxoviridae. In: Poultry Diseases (Jordan, F.T.W. and Pattison, M., Eds), W.B. Saunders, London, pp. 139–155Google Scholar
Alexander, D.J., Morris, H.T. and Pollitt, W.J. (1998) Newcastle disease outbreaks in domestic fowl and turkeys in Great Britain during 1997. Veterinary Record 143: 209–212CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Al-Muffarej, S.I., Savage, C.E. and Jones, R.C. (1996) Egg transmission of avian reovimses in chickens: comparison of a trypsin-sensitive and a trypsin-resistant strain. Avian Pathology 25: 469–480CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bannerman, T.L., Hancock, G.A., Tenover, F.C. and Miller, J.M. (1995) Pulsed-field gel electrophoresis as a replacement for bacteriophage typing of Staphylococcus aureus. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 33: 551–555CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Biberstein, E.L. (1990) Staphylococci. In: Review of Veterinary Microbiology (Biberstein, E.L. and Zee, Y.C., Eds), Blackwell Scientific Publications, London, pp. 150–156Google Scholar
Bisping, W. and Amtsberg, G. (1988) Colour Atlas for the Diagnosis of Bacterial Pathogens in Animals, Verlag Paul Parey, BerlinGoogle Scholar
Bosch, J.F.V.D., Hendriks, J.H.I.M., Gladigau, I., Willems, H.M.C., Storm, P.K. and Graaf, F.K.D. (1993) Identification of F11 fimbriae on chicken Escherichia coli strains. Infection and Immunity 61: 800–806CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bosch, J.F.V.D., Gladigau, I., Willems, H. and Storm, P.K. (1994) Vaccination with F11 fimbriae induces protection against chicken E. coli septicaemia. In: Virulence Mechanisms of Bacterial Pathogens (Roth, J.E., Ed.), Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa, p. 11Google Scholar
Bounous, D.I., Goodwin, M.A., Brooks, R.L., Lanichhane, C.M., Campagnoli, R.P., Brown, J. and Snyder, D.B. (1995) Immunosuppression and intracellular calcium signalling in splenocytes from chicks infected with chicken anaemia virus, CLl isolate. Avian Diseases 39: 135–14CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bradbury, J.M. and Kelly, D.F. (1991) Mycoplasma iowae infection in broiler breeders. Avian Pathology 20: 67–78CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Branton, S.L., Lott, B.D., May, J.D., Maslin, W.R., Boyle, C.R. and Pharr, G.T. (1997a) The effect of strain Mycoplasma gallisepticum, Mycoplasma synoviae and the dual infection in commercial layer hens over a 44 week laying cycle when challenged before beginning of lay. 1. Egg production and selected egg quality parameters. Avian Diseases 41: 832–837CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Branton, S.L., May, J.D., Lott, B.D. and Maslin, W.R. (1997b) Various blood parameters in commercial hens acutely and chronically infected with Mycoplasma gallisepticum and Mycoplasma synoviae. Avian Diseases 41: 540–547CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bremell, T., Lange, S., Yacoub, A., Ryden, C. and Tarkowski, A. (1991) Experimental Staphylococcus aureus arthritis in mice. Infection and Immunity 59: 2615–2623CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Butterworth, A., Goodship, A.E. and Preece, A.W. (1987) A carbon chamber for vital microscopy of bone healing. Acta Orthopaedica Scandinavica 58: 545–548CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Carnaghan, R.B.A. (1966) Spinal cord compression in fowls due to spondylitis caused by Staphylococcus pyogenes. Journal of Comparative Pathology 76: 9–14CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chaffer, M., Schwartsburd, B. and Heller, E.D. (1997) Vaccination of turkey poults against pathogenic Escherichia coli. Avian Pathology 26: 377–390CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cook, M.E., Springer, W.T., Kerr, K.M. and Hebert, J.A. (1983) Severity of tenosynovitis in reovirus infected chickens fed various dietary levels of choline, folic acid, manganese, biotin or niacin. Avian Diseases 28: 562–573CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Daum, R.S., Fattom, A., Freese, S. and Karakawa, W. (1994) Capsular polysaccharide serotypes of coagulase-positive staphylococci associated with tenosynovitis, osteomyelitis and other invasive infections in chickens and turkeys: evidence for new capsular types. Avian Diseases 38: 762–771CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Deshmukh, D.R. and Pomeroy, B.S. (1969a) Avian reoviruses II. Physicochemical characterization and classification. Avian Diseases 13: 239–243CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Deshmukh, D.R. and Pomeroy, B.S. (1969b) Avian reoviruses. III. Infectivity and egg transmission. Avian Diseases 13: 427–430CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Devriese, L.A., Devos, A.H. and Damme, L.R.V. (1973) Effect of feeding antibiotics on experimental Staphylococcus aureus colonization on the surface of chickens. Avian Diseases 17: 24–30CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Duff, S.R.I. (1986) Tendon lesions in broiler fowls. Research in Veterinary Science 40: 333–338CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Duff, S.R.I. and Hocking, P.M. (1986) Chronic orthopaedic disease in adult male broiler breeding fowls. Research in Veterinary Science 41: 340–348CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Eidson, C.S. and Kleven, S.H. (1983) Simultaneous vaccination of one-day-old broiler chickens with tenosynovitis virus and turkey herpesvirus. Poultry Science 62: 1177–1188CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Emery, D.A., Nagaraja, K.V., Shaw, D.P., Newman, J.A. and White, D.G. (1992) Virulence factors of Escherichia coli associated with colisepticemia in chickens and turkeys. Avian Diseases 36: 504–511CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Emmerson, D.A., Anthony, N.B., Nestor, K.E. and Saif, Y.M. (1991) Genetic association of selection for increased leg muscle and increased shank diameter with body composition and walking ability. Poultry Science 70: 739–745CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Emslie, K.R., Ozanne, N.R. and Nade, S.M.L. (1983) Acute haematogenous osteomyelitis: an experimental model. Journal of Pathology 141: 157–167CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Farrant, J. (1998) Getting better but not bigger. Poultry World, June, 25Google Scholar
FAWC (1992) Report on the Welfare of Broiler Chicks, MAFF, LondonGoogle Scholar
Garcia, M., Jackwood, M.W., Levisohn, S. and Kleven, S.H. (1995) Detection of Mycoplasma gallisepticum, M. synoviae and M. iowae by multi species polymerase chain reaction and restriction fragment length polymorphism. Avian Diseases 39: 606–616CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Garcia, M., Gerchman, I., Meir, R., Jackwood, M.W., Kleven, S.H. and Levisohn, S. (1997) Detection of Mycoplasma meleagridis and Mycoplasma iowae from dead-in-shell turkey embryos by PCR and culture. Avian Pathology 26: 765–778CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Giambrone, J.J. and Closser, J. (1989) Efficacy of simultaneous administration of Marek's disease and viral tenosynovitis vaccines to day-old broiler chickens. Poultry Science 68: 1213–1217CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Giambrone, J.J., Hathcock, T.L. and Lockaby, S.B. (1991) Effect of live reovirus vaccine on reproductive performance of broiler breeder hens and development of viral tenosynovitis in progeny. Avian Diseases 35: 380–383CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gomis, S.M., Watts, T., Riddell, C., Potter, A.A. and Allan, B.J. (1997) Experimental reproduction of Escherichia coli cellulitis and septicemia in broiler chickens. Avian Diseases 41: 234–240CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gooderham, K.R. (1996) Avian pasteurellosis and Pasteurella-like organisms. In: Poultry Diseases (Jordan, F.T.W. and Pattison, M., Eds), W.B. Saunders, London, pp. 44–51Google Scholar
Hamdy, A.H., Kratzer, D.D., Paxton, L.M. and Roberts, B.J. (1978) Effect of a single injection of lineomycin, spectinomycin and linco-spectin on early chick mortality caused by Escherischia coli and Staphylococcus aureus. Avian Diseases 23: 164–173CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Heide, L.VAN DER, Geissler, J. and Bryant, E.S. (1974) Infectious tenosynovitis: serologic and histopathologic response after experimental infection with a Connecticut isolate. Avian Diseases 18: 289–296CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Heide, L.VAN DER and Kalbac, M. (1975) Infectious tenosynovitis (viral arthritis): characterization of a Connecticut viral isolant as a reovirus and evidence of viral egg transmission by reovirus-infected broiler breeders. Avian Diseases 19: 683–688CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Heide, L.VAN DER, Lutticken, D. and Horzinek, M. (1981) Isolation of avian reovirus as a possible etiologic agent of osteoporosis (“brittle bone disease”; “femoral head necrosis”) in broiler chickens. Avian Diseases 25: 847–856CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Herenda, D.C. and Fanco, D.A. (1996) Poultry Diseases and Meat Hygiene, Iowa State University Press, Iowa, USAGoogle Scholar
Herrmann, M., Suchard, S.J., Boxer, L.A., Waldvogel, F.A. and Lew, P.D. (1991) Thrombospondin binds to Staphylococcus aureus and promotes staphylococcal adherence to surfaces. Infection and Immunity 59: 279–288CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hester, P.Y. (1994) The role of environment and management on leg abnormalities in meat-type fowl. Poultry Science 73: 904–915CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hieronymus, D.R.K., Villegas, P. and Kleven, S.H. (1982) Characteristics and pathogenicity of two avian reoviruses isolated from chickens with leg problems. Avian Diseases 27: 255–260CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hill, J.E., Rowland, G.N., Glisson, J.R. and Villegas, P. (1989a) Comparative microscopic lesions in reoviral and staphylococcal tenosynovitis. Avian Diseases 33: 401–410CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hill, J.E., Rowland, G.N., Latimer, K.S. and Brown, J. (1989b) Effects of cyclosporine A on reovirus infected broilers. Avian Diseases 33: 86–92CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hill, J.E., Rowland, G.N., Steffens, W.L. and Ard, M.B. (1989c) Ultrastructure of the gastrocnemius tendon sheath from broilers infected with reovirus. Avian Diseases 33: 79–85CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hinz, K.H., Ryll, M., Kohler, B. and Glunder, G. (1998) Phenotypic characteristics of Riemerella anatipestifer and similar micro-organisms from various hosts. Avian Pathology 27: 33–42CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hirsh, D.C. (1990) Salmonella. In: Review of Veterinary Microbiology (Biberstein, E.L. and Zee, Y.C., Eds), Blackwell Scientific, Oxford, pp. 110–114Google Scholar
Hole, N. and Purchase, H.G. (1931) Arthritis and periostitis in pheasants caused by Staphylococcus pyogenes aureus. Journal of Comparative Pathology and Therapeutics 44: 252–257CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Howlett, C.R. (1979) The fine structure of the proximal growth plate of the avian tibia. Journal of Anatomy 128: 377–399Google ScholarPubMed
Howlett, C.R. (1980) The fine structure of the proximal growth plate and metaphysis of the avian tibia: endochondral osteogenesis. Journal of Anatomy 130: 745–768Google ScholarPubMed
Huang, D.D. (1995) Restriction of avian reovirus in primary chick embryo tendon cells. Virology 207: 117–126CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hunter, W.L. and Arsenault, L. (1990) Vascular invasion of the epiphyseal growth plate: analysis of metaphyseal capillary ultrastructure and growth dynamics. Anatomical Record 227: 223–231CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hurwitz, S. (1992) The role of vitamin D in poultry bone biology. In: Bone Biology and Skeletal Disorders in Poultry (Whitehead, C.C., Ed.), Carfax, Oxford, pp. 87–102Google Scholar
INTERVET (1996) NOBILIS E. coli inac™ data sheet. Intervet UK Ltd, CambridgeGoogle Scholar
Islam, M.R., Jones, R. and Kelly, D.F. (1988) Pathogenesis of experimental reovirus tenosynovitis in chickens: influence of the route of infection. Journal of Comparafive Pathology 98: 328–336Google ScholarPubMed
Johnson, D.C. (1972) Diagnosis, pathology and etiology of tenosynovitis in broilers and broiler breeders. Avian Diseases 16: 1067–1072CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jones, R.C. and Onunkwo, O. (1978) Studies on experimental tenosynovitis in light hybrid chickens. Avian Pathology 7: 171–181CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jones, R.C., Guneratne, J.R.M. and Georgiou, K. (1978) Avian adenoviruses and tenosynovitis. Veterinary Record 102: 365CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jones, R.C., Williams, R.A., Savage, C.E. and Thorp, B.H. (1993) Isolation of infectious laryngotracheitis virus from the proximal femora of lame broiler chickens. Research in Veterinary Science 55: 377–378CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jordan, F.T.W. (1996a) Staphylococci. In: Poultry Diseases (Jordan, F.T.W. and Pattison, M., Eds), W.B. Saunders, London, pp. 66–69Google Scholar
Jordan, F.T.W. (1996b) Clostridia. In: Poultry Diseases (Jordan, F.T.W. and Pattison, M., Eds), W.B. Saunders, London, pp. 60–65Google Scholar
Jordan, F.T.W. and Pattison, M. (1996) Poultry Diseases, W.B. Saunders, LondonGoogle Scholar
Julian, R.J. and Bhatnagar, M.K. (1984) Cartilage lesions associated with shaky-leg lameness in turkeys. Avian Diseases 29: 218–232CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jungherr, E. (1933) Staphylococcal arthritis in turkeys. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 82: 243–249Google Scholar
Kempf, I. (1998) DNA amplification methods for diagnosis and epidemiological investigation of avian mycoplasmosis. Avian Pathology 27: 7–14CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kerr, K.M. and Olson, N.O. (1969) Pathology of chickens inoculated experimentally or contact infected with an arthritis producing virus. Avian Diseases 13: 729–745CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kestin, S.C., Knowles, T.G., Tinch, A.E. and Gregory, N.G. (1992) Prevalence of leg weakness in broiler chickens and its relationship with genotype. Veterinary Record 131: 190–194CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kestin, S.C., Adams, S.J.M. and Gregory, N.G. (1994) Leg weakness in broiler chickens, a review of studies using gait scoring. Proceedings of the 9th European Poultry Conference,Glasgow,UK, Volume II: pp. 203–206Google Scholar
Kibenge, F.S.B., Robertson, M.D. and Wilcox, G.E. (1982) Staphylococcus aureus isolated from poultry in Australia. II. Epidemiology of strains associated with tenosynovitis. Veterinary Microbiology 7: 485–491CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Larson, C.T., Gross, W.B. and Davis, J.W. (1985) Social stress and resistance of chicken and swine to Staphylococcus aureus challenge infections. Canadian Journal of Comparative Medicine 49: 208–210Google ScholarPubMed
Leavitt, R.W., Braithwaite, C. and Jensen, M.M. (1997) Colicin V38 and Microcin C38 produced by Escherichia coli strain 38. Avian Diseases 41: 568–577CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Levisohn, S., Lublin, A., Gerchman, I., Mechani, S., Lauerman, L.H. and Weisman, Y. (1998) New insights into the etiology of leg problems in turkeys. XIth International Congress of the World Veterinary Poultry Association, Budapest, Hungary, pp. 92Google Scholar
Lopes, J.D., Reis, M.D. and Brentani, R.R. (1985) Presence of laminin receptors in Staphylococcus aureus. Science 229: 275–277CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Loveridge, N., Thomson, B.M. and Farquharson, C. (1992) Bone growth and turnover. In: Bone Biology and Skeletal Disorders in Poultry (Whitehead, C.C., Ed.), Carfax, Oxford, pp. 3–17Google Scholar
Mackenzie, M.A. and Bains, B.S. (1977) Tenosynovitis in chickens. Australian Veterinary Journal 53: 196CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mandelli, G., Rampin, T. and Finazzi, M. (1978) Experimental reovirus hepatitis in newborn chicks. Veterinary Pathology 15: 531–543CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Maurer, J.J., Lee, M.D., Lobsinger, C., Brown, T., Maier, M. and Thayer, S.G. (1998) Molecular typing of avian Escherichia coli isolates by random amplification of polymorphic DNA. Avian Diseases 42: 431–451CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McCullagh, J.J. and McNamee, P.T. (1998) The use of pulsed field gel electrophoresis to investigate the epidemiology of Staphylococcus aureus infection in commercial broiler flocks. Veterinary Microbiology 63: 275–281CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McNamee, P.T., McCullagh, J.J., Thorp, B.H., Ball, H.J., Graham, D., McCullough, S.J., McConaghy, D. and Smyth, J.A. (1998) Study of leg weakness in two commercial broiler flocks. Veterinary Record 143: 131–135CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McNulty, M.S. and McFerran, J.B. (1996a) Adenovimses. In: Poultry Diseases (Jordan, F.T.W. and Pattison, M., Eds), W.B. Saunders, London, pp. 204–217Google Scholar
McNulty, M.S. and McFerran, J.B. (1996b) Reoviridae. In: Poultry Diseases (Jordan, F.T.W. and Pattison, M., Eds), W.B. Saunders, London, pp. 218–225Google Scholar
Meanger, J., Wickramasinghe, R., Enriquez, C.E., Robertson, M.D. and Wilcox, G.E. (1995) Type-specific antigenicity of avian reoviruses. Avian Pathology 24: 121–134CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Menendez, N.A., Calnek, B.W. and Cowen, B.S. (1974) Localization of avian reovirus (FDO isolant) in tissues of mature chickens. Avian Diseases 19: 112–117CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mohammed, H.O., Carpenter, T.E. and Yamamoto, R. (1987) Economic impact of Mycoplasma gallisepticum and M. synoviae in commercial layer flocks. Avian Diseases 31: 477–482CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Morrow, C.J., Bradbury, J.M., Gentle, M.J. and Thorp, B.H. (1997) The development of lameness and bone deformity in the broiler following experimental infection with Mycoplasma gallisepticum and Mycoplasma synoviae. Avian Pathology 26: 169–187CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mutalib, A., Riddell, C. and Osborne, A.D. (1982a) Studies on the pathogenesis of staphylococcal osteomyelitis in chickens. I. Effect of stress on experimentally induced osteomyehtis. Avian Diseases 27: 141–160CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mutalib, A., Riddell, C. and Osborne, A.D. (1982b) Studies on the pathogenesis of staphylococcal osteomyelitis in chickens. II. Role of respiratory tract as a route of infection. Avian Diseases 27: 157–160CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nade, S. and Speers, D.J. (1987) Staphylococcal adherence to chicken cartilage. Acta Orthopaedica Scandinavica 58: 351–353CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nagai, S., Someno, S. and Yagihashi, T. (1994) Differentiation of toxigenic from non-toxigenic isolates of Pasteurella multocida by PCR. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 32: 1004–1010CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nagai, S., Kazama, S. and Yagihashi, T. (1995) Ribotyping of Mycoplasma gallisepticum strains with a 16S ribosomal RNA gene probe. Avian Pathology 24: 633–642CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nairn, M.E. and Watson, A.R.A. (1972) Leg weakness of poultry – a clinical and pathological characterisation. Australian Veterinary Journal 48: 645–656CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nakamura, K., Shirai, J., Imai, K., Hihara, H. and Tanimura, N. (1997) Outbreak of comb necrosis in layer breeder chickens. Avian Diseases 41: 252–256CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Naqi, S., Pugh, R. and Sahin, N. (1984) Expression of viral arthritis-tenosynovitis infection in immunosuppressed chickens. Poultry Science 63: 825–827CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nascimento, E.R., Yamamoto, R., Herrick, K.R. and Tait, R.C. (1991) Polymerase chain reaction for detection of Mycoplasma gnllisepticum. Avian Disuses 35: 62–69CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nascimento, E.R., Yamamoto, R. and Khan, M.I. (1993) Mycoplasina gallisepticum F-vaccine strain specific polymerase chain reaction. Aviarz Diseases 37: 203–211CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nestor, K.E. (1984) Genetics of growth and reproduction in the turkey. 9. Long term selection for increased 16 week body weight. Poultry Science 63: 2114–2122CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ni, Y. and Kemp, M.C. (1995) A comparative study of avian reovirus pathogenicity: virus spread and replication and induction of lesions. Avian Diseuses 39: 554–566CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Oga, M., Arizono, T. and Sugioka, Y. (1993) Bacterial adherence to bioinert and bioactive materials studied in vitro. Acta Orthopaedica Scandinavica 64: 273–276CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Olson, N.O. and Kerr, K.M. (1966) Some characteristics of an avian arthritis viral agent. Avian Diseases 10: 470–476CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Onderka, D.K., Hanson, J.A., McMillan, K.R. and Allan, B. (1997) Escherichia coli associated cellulitis in broilers: correlation with systemic infection and microscopic visceral lesions, and evaluation for skin trimming. Avian Diseases 41: 935–940CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Padron, M. (1990) Salmonella typhimurium outbreak in broiler chicken flocks in Mexico. Avian Diseases 34: 221–223Google ScholarPubMed
Page, R.K., Fletcher, O.J. and Villegas, P. (1982) Infectious tenosynovitis in young turkeys. Avian Diseases 26: 924–927CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Patti, J.M., Bremell, T., Krajewska, D., Abdelnour, A., Tarkowski, A., Ryden, C. and Hook, M. (1994) The Staphylococcus aureus collagen adhesin is a virulence determinant in experimental septic arthritis. Infection and Immunity 62: 152–161CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pattison, M. (1992) Impacts of bone problems on the poultry meat industry. In: Bone Biology and Skeletal Disorders in Poultry (Whitehead, C.C., Ed.), Carfax, Oxford, pp. 329–338Google Scholar
Peighambari, S.M., Julian, R.J., Vaillancourt, J.P. and Gyles, C.L. (1995a) Escherichia coli cellulitis: experimental infections in broiler chickens. Avian Diseases 39: 125–134CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Peighambari, S.M., Vaillancourt, J.P., Wilson, R.A. and Gyles, C.L. (1995b) Characteristics of Escherichia coli isolates from avian cellulitis. Avian Diseases 39: 116–124CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Piechulla, K., Bisgaard, M., Gerlach, H. and Mannheim, W. (1985) Taxonomy of some recently described avian PasteurellalActinobacillus like organisms as indicated by deoxyribonucleic acid relatedness. Avian Pathology 14: 281–311CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Prantner, M.M., Harmon, B.G., Glisson, J.R. and Mahaffey, E.A. (1990) The pathogenesis of Pasteurella multocida serotype A:3,4 in turkeys: a comparison of two vaccine strains and a field isolate. Avian Diseases 34: 260–266CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Price, J.S. and Russell, R.G.G. (1992) Bone remodelling: regulation by systemic local factors. In: Bone Biology and Skeletal Disorders in Poultry (Whitehead, C.C., Ed.), Carfax, Oxford, pp. 39–60Google Scholar
Quinn, P.J., Carter, M.E., Markey, B. and Carter, G.R. (1994) Clinical Veterinary Microbiology, Wolfe, LondonGoogle Scholar
Randall, C.J., Meakins, P.A., Harris, M.P. and Watt, D.J. (1984) A new skin disease in broilers? Veterinary Record 114: 246CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Reece, R.L. (1992) The role of infectious agents in leg abnormalities in growing birds. In: Bone Biology and Skeletal Disorders in Poultry (Whitehead, C.C., Ed.) Carfax, Oxford, pp. 231–263Google Scholar
Reece, R.L., Beddome, V.D. and Barr, D.A. (1985) Diseases diagnosed in broiler chicken flocks in Victoria, Australia 1977–1984. Veterinary Record 116: 315–320CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reece, R.L., Beddome, V.D. and Barr, D.A. (1986) Diseases diagnosed in replacement layer and breeder chicken flocks in Victoria, Australia, 1977–1985. Veterinary Record 119: 471–475CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reiter, K. and Bessei, W. (1997) Gait analysis in laying hens and broilers with and without leg disorders. Equine Veterinary Journal 23: 110–112CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Riddell, C. (1976) Selection of broiler chickens for a high and low incidence of tibial dyschondroplasia with observations on sponylolisthesis and twisted legs (perosis). Poultry Science 55: 145–151CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Riddell, C. and Classen, H.L. (1992) Effects of increasing photoperiod length and anticoccidials on performance and health of roaster chickens. Avian Diseases 36: 491–498CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Riddell, C. and Springer, R. (1984) An epizootiological study of acute death syndrome and leg weakness in broiler chickens in western Canada. Avian Diseases 29: 90–102CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rimler, R.B. and Nordholm, G.E. (1998) DNA fingerprinting of Reimerella anatipestifer. Avian Diseases 42: 101–105CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Roessler, D.E. and Rosenberger, J.K. (1989) In vitro and in vivo characterization of avian reoviruses. III. Host factors affecting virulence and persistence. Avian Diseases 33: 555–565CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rosenberger, J.K., Sterner, F.J., Botts, S., Lee, K.P. and Margolin, A. (1989) In vitro and in vivo characterisation of avian reoviruses. I. Pathogenicity and antigenic relatedness of several avian reovirus isolates. Avian Diseases 33: 535–544CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sahu, S.P. and Olson, N.O. (1975) Comparison of the characteristics of avian reoviruses isolated from the digestive and respiratory tract, with viruses isolated from the synovia. American Journal of Veterinary Research 36: 847–850Google ScholarPubMed
Sandhu, T.S. and Leister, M.L. (1991) Serotypes of Pasteurella anatipestifer isolates from poultry in different countries. Avian Pathology 20: 233–239CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schoemaker, N.J., Dorrestein, G.M. and Lumeij, J.T. (1998) An avipoxvirus infection in a goshawk (Accipiter gentilis). Avian Pathology 27: 103–106CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shapouri, M.R.S., Frenette, D., Larochelle, R. and Arella, M. (1996) Characterization of monoclonal antibodies against avian reovirus strain S1133. Avian Pathology 25: 57–67CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sheridan, A.K., Howlett, C.R. and Burton, R.W. (1978) The inheritance of tibial dyschondroplasia in broilers. British Poultry Science 19: 491–499CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shjmizu, A. (1978) Phage typing results of Staphylococcus aureus isolated from poultry in Japan and Europe. Avian Diseases 23: 39–46CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sorensen, P. (1992) The genetics of leg disorders. In: Bone Biology and Skeletal Disorders in Poultry (Whitehead, C.C., Eds), Carfax, Oxford, pp. 213–229Google Scholar
Speers, D.J. and Nade, S.M. (1985) Ultrastructural studies of adherence of Staphylococcus aureus in experimental acute haematogenous osteomyelitis. Infection and Immunity 49: 443–446CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Takase, K., Nonaka, F., Yamamoto, M. and Yamada, S. (1987) Serologic and pathogenic studies on avian reoviruses isolated in Japan. Avian Diseases 31: 464–469CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tang, K.N., Fletcher, O.J. and Villegas, P. (1987a) Comparative study of the pathogenicity of avian reoviruses. Avian Diseases 31: 577–583CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tang, K.N., Fletcher, O.J. and Villegas, P. (1987b) The effect on newborn chicks of oral inoculation of reovirus isolated from chickens with tenosynovitis. Avian Diseases 31: 584–590CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tantanwi, H.H., Amina, N., Youssef, Y.I., Fawzia, M., Al-Abdulla, J.M., El-Batrawi, A., El-Ghawas, A., Nasser, A.A. and Reda, I.M. (1984) Infectious tenosynovitis in broilers and broiler breeders in Egypt. Veterinary Research Communications 8: 229–235CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thompson, J.K., Patterson, J.T. and Gibbs, P.A. (1979) The use of a new phage set for typing poultry strains of Staphylococcus aurcus obtained from seven countries. British Poultry Science 21: 95–102CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thompson, J.K., Gibbs, P.A. and Patterson, J.T. (1980) Staphylococcus aureus in commercial laying flocks: incidence and characteristics of strains isolated from chicks, pullets and hens in an integrated commercial enterprise. British Poultry Science 21: 315–330CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thorp, B.H. (1994) Skeletal disorders in the fowl: a review. Avian Pathology 23: 203–236CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Thorp, B.H. (1996) Diseases of the musculoskeletal system. In: Poultry Disease (Jordan, F.T.W. and Pattison, M., Eds), W.B. Saunders, London, pp. 290–305Google Scholar
Thorp, B.H. (1998) Diseases of the musculoskeletal system. Poultry Disease Course – IAH, Compton, Berkshire, pp. 42–47Google Scholar
Thorp, B.H. and Goddard, C. (1994) Plasma concentrations of growth hormone and insulin like growth factor I in chickens developing tibial dyschondroplasia. Research in Veterinary Science 57: 100–105CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Thorp, B.H., Jakowlew, S.B. and Goddard, C. (1995) Avian dyschondroplasia: local deficiencies in growth factors are integral to the aetiopathogenesis. Avian Pathology 24: 135–148CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Timms, L.M. (1985) Influence of a 12.5 per cent rapeseed diet and an avian reovirus on production of leg abnormalities in male broiler chickens. Research in Veterinary Science 38: 69–76CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vaudaux, P.E., Francois, P., Proctor, R.A., McDevitt, M., Foster, T.J., Albrecht, R.M., Lew, D.P., Wabers, H. and Cooper, S.L. (1995) Use of adhesion-defective mutants of Staphylococcus aureus to define the role of specific plasma proteins in promoting bacterial adhesion to canine arteriovenous shunts. Infection and Immunity 63: 585–589CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Walker, K.H., Cooper, K. and Jackson, C.A.W. (1979) Pasteurella multocida as a cause of arthrosynovitis and tenosynovitis in broiler chickens. Australian Veterinary Journal 55: 250–251Google ScholarPubMed
Whalen, J.L., Fitzgerald, R.H. and Morrissy, R.T. (1988) A histological study of acute hematogenous osteomyelitis following physeal injuries in rabbits. Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery 70A: 1383–1392CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Whitehead, C.C. (1992) Bone Biology and Skeletal Disorders in Poultry, Carfax, OxfordGoogle Scholar
Wray, C., Davies, R.H. and Cornish, J.D. (1996) Enterobacteriaceae. In: Poultry Diseases (Jordan, F.T.W. and Pattison, M., Eds), W.B. Saunders, London, pp. 9–43Google Scholar
Wu, W., Cook, M.E. and Smalley, E.B. (1991) Decreased immune response and increased incidence of tibia1 dyschondroplasia caused by fusaria grown on sterile corn. Poultry Science 70: 293–301CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wu, W., Cook, M.E., Chu, Q. and Smalley, E.B. (1993) Tibia1 dyschondroplasia of chickens induced by fusarochromanone, a mycotoxin. Avian Diseases 37: 302–309CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wyeth, P.J. (1974) Influence of route of infection on response of chickens to Mycoplasma synoviae. Veterinary Record 95: 208–211CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Xie, Z., Fadl, A.A., Girshick, T. and Khan, M.I. (1997) Amplification of avian reovirus RNA using the reverse transcriptase-polymerasechain reaction. Avian Diseases 41: 654–660CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yogaratnam, V. (1995) Analysis of the causes of high rates of carcase rejection at a poultry processing plant. Veterinary Record 137: 215–217CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zhao, S. and Yamamoto, R. (1993a) Amplification of Mycoplasma iowae using polymerase chain reaction. Avian Diseases 37: 212–217CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zhao, S. and Yamamoto, R. (1993b) Detection of Mycoplasma meleagridis by polymerase chain reaction. Veterinary Microbiology 36: 91–97CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed