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A Comparative Conceptualization of Civil-Military Relations

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  13 June 2011

David E. Albright
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Abstract

Since the late 1950s, discussion of civil-military relations has taken place largely within one general conceptual framework. According to this theoretical perception, military and civilian authorities constitute two distinct groups (although they each consist of a variety of subgroups), and relations between them are inherently conflictual. What keeps the conflict within bounds is subordination of the officer corps to civilians except on matters requiring military expertise—i.e., civilian control. Shifts in civil-military relations, moreover, are a function of the degree of effectiveness of civilian control. A close examination of the experiences of the sixteen communist states indicates that these propositions lack comparative validity. It also suggests an alternative conceptualization of civil-military relations. Such relations can be thought of in terms of a continuum, with cooperation at one pole and conflict at the other. Where an individual country falls on that continuum at any time depends on a number of specific variables, of which the sharpness of the dividing line between military and civilian authorities is one. Modifications of civil-military relations can result from changes in any of these variables.

Type
Research Note
Information
World Politics , Volume 32 , Issue 4 , July 1980 , pp. 553 - 576
Copyright
Copyright © Trustees of Princeton University 1980

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References

1 Huntington, , The Soldier and the State: The Theory and Politics of Civil-Military Relations (Cambridge, Mass.:The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1957Google Scholar).

2 Ibid., 7.

3 Ibid., 19.

4 Ibid., 20.

5 Ibid., 70–71.

6 Ibid., 70–72. While Huntington couched the analysis in this passage in normative terms, it is clear from the ensuing discussion that he regarded his notion of civilian control as descriptive of actual conditions in at least some countries at some times.

7 See, for example, ibid., 98–124.

8 Ibid., 80–85.

9 See “Praetorianism and Political Decay,” which appears as chap. 4 in Huntington, , Political Order in Changing Societies (New Haven:Yale University Press, 1968Google Scholar).

10 Huntington (fn. i), 80–81.

11 See, for instance, Janowitz, , The Professional Soldier (New York:Free Press, 1960Google Scholar).

12 Abrahamsson, , Military Professionalization and Political Power (Beverly Hills, Calif.:Sage, 1972Google Scholar).

13 See Nordlinger, , Soldiers in Politics: Military Coups and Governments (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.:Prentice-Hall, 1977Google Scholar); Perlmutter, , The Military and Politics in Modern Times (New Haven:Yale University Press, 1977Google Scholar); Welch, and Smith, , Military Role and Rule (North Scituate, Mass.:Duxbury Press, 1974Google Scholar).

14 For purposes of illustration, see Chari, P. R., “Civil-Military Relations in India,” Armed Forces and Society, iv (Fall 1977Google Scholar) Cohen, Stephen P., The Indian Army: Its Contribution to the Development of a Nation (Berkeley:University of California Press, 1971Google Scholar); Joffe, Ellis, “The Chinese Army and Professionalism,” Problems of Communism, xxvii (November-December 1978Google Scholar); McAlister, Lyle M. and others, The Military in Latin American Sociopolitical Evolution: Four Case Studies (Washington, D.C.:Center for Research in Social Systems, 1970Google Scholar); Perlmutter, Amos, “The Israeli Army in Politics: The Persistence of the Civilian Over the Military,” World Politics, xx (July 1968Google Scholar); Stepan, Alfred, “The New Professionalism of Internal Warfare and Military Role Expansion,”Google Scholar in Stepan, Alfred, ed, Authoritarian Brazil: Origins, Policies and Future (New Haven:Yale University Press, 1973Google Scholar).

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17 Odom's position is laid out in “The Soviet Military: The Party Connection,” Problems of Communism, xxii (September-October 1973Google Scholar), and the revised and expanded version of this article that appears as “The Party-Military Connection: A Critique,” in Herspring and Volgyes (fn. 15). On Colton's participatory model, see his “The Party-Military Connection: A Participatory Model,” in Herspring and Volgyes, ibid., and Colton, , Commissars, Commanders, and Civilian Authority: The Structure of Soviet Military Politics (Cambridge, Mass.:Harvard University Press, 1979CrossRefGoogle Scholar).

18 The concrete data base from which Huntington generalized was essentially Western, and especially American, experience. Although he did talk about civil-military relations in Japan, he used the Japanese case simply to show the applicability of his theory to non-Western contexts; he did not employ Japanese experience either to derive his conceptualization or to test it. Indeed, his discussion of Japan in The Soldier and the State (pp. 124–39) is sketchy at best.

19 For relevant analyses of the initial period of the Cuban revolution, see in particular Dominguez, Jorge I., “The Civic Soldier in Cuba,” in Kelleher, Catherine, ed., Political-Military Systems: Comparative Perspectives (Beverly Hills, Calif.:Sage, 1974Google Scholar); Perez, Louis A. Jr., “Army Politics in Socialist Cuba,” Latin American Studies, viii (November 1976Google Scholar); William M. LeoGrande, “A Bureaucratic Approach to Civil-Military Relations in Communist Political Systems: The Case of Cuba,” in Herspring and Volgyes (fn. 15).

20 Information is less plentiful on the situations in some of these countries than on the situations in others, but it is good enough in all cases to sustain the argument set forth in the ensuing paragraphs. For pertinent discussions of the state of affairs in each country, see the following sources:

On China-Joffe (fn. 15); Griffith, Samuel B., II, The Chinese People's Liberation Army (New York:McGraw-Hill, 1967Google Scholar); Gittings, John, The Role of the Chinese Army (London: Oxford University Press, 1967Google Scholar); Whitson, William W., The Chinese High Command: A History of Communist Military Politics, 1927-71 (New York:Praeger, 1973CrossRefGoogle Scholar); Godwin's, Paul H. B. contribution to the symposium on “Civil-Military Relations in Communist States: First Steps Toward Theory,” Studies in Comparative Communism, xi (Autumn 1978Google Scholar); Adelman, Jonathan R., “The Formative Influence of the Civil Wars: Societal Roles of the Soviet and Chinese Armies,” Armed Forces and Society, v (Autumn 1978Google Scholar).

On Yugoslavia—A. Johnson, Ross, The Role of the Military in Communist Yugoslavia, Memorandum P-6070 (Santa Monica, Calif.:Rand Corporation, January 1978Google Scholar); Remington (fn. 15), and also her contribution to the symposium in Studies in Comparative Communism, op. cit.

On Skendi, Albania—Stavro, ed., Albania (New York:Praeger, 1956Google Scholar); Pano, Nicholas C., The People's Republic of Albania (Baltimore:The Johns Hopkins Press, 1968Google Scholar); Keefe, Eugene K. and others, Area Handbook for Albania (Washington, D.C.:U.S. Government Printing Office, 1971Google Scholar); Prifti, Peter R., Socialist Albania since 1944: Domestic and Foreign Developments (Cambridge, Mass.:M.I.T. Press, 1978Google Scholar), esp. chap. 10.

On Tanham, Vietnam—George K., Communist Revolutionary Warfare: From the Vietminh to the Vietcong, rev. ed. (New York:Praeger, 1967Google Scholar); Turley, William, “Civil-military Relations in North Vietnam,” Asian Survey, ix (December 1969Google Scholar); Turley, , “Army, Party, and Society in the Democratic Republic of Vietnam: Civil-Military Relations in a Mass Mobilization System,” Ph.D. diss. (University of Washington, 1972Google Scholar); Turley, , “Origins and Development of Communist Military Leadership in Vietnam,” Armed Forces and Society, iii (Winter 1977Google Scholar).

On Quinn, Cambodia—Kenneth M., “Political Change in Wartime: The Khmer Krahom Revolution in Southern Cambodia, 1970–1974,” Naval War College Review, XXVIII (Spring 1976Google Scholar); Ponchaud, Francois, Cambodge Annee Zero (Paris:Juillard, 1977Google Scholar); Carney, Timothy M., Communist Party Power in Kampuchea: Documents and Discussion (Ithaca, N.Y.:Cornell University Southeast Asian Program Data Paper, January 1977Google Scholar); Zasloff, Joseph J. and Brown, MacAlister, eds., Communism in Indochina: ‘New Perspectives (Lexington, Mass.:D.C. Heath, 1975Google Scholar); Zasloff, and Brown, , Communist Indochina and U.S. Foreign Policy (Boulder, Colo.:Westview, 1978Google Scholar); Zasloff, and Brown, , “The Passion of Kampuchea,” Problems of Communism, xxvii (January-February 1979Google Scholar).

On Zasloff, Laos-Joseph J., The Pathet Lao: Leadership and Organization (Lexington, Mass.:D. C. Heath, 1973Google Scholar); Adams, Nina S. and McCoy, Alfred W., eds., Laos: War and Revolution (New York:Harper & Row, 1970Google Scholar); Brown, and Zasloff, , “Laos 1976: Faltering First Steps toward Socialism,” Asian Survey, xvii (February 1977Google Scholar);

Zasloff and Brown, 1975 and 1978, op. cit.; Halpern, Joel M. and Turley, William S., eds., The Training of Vietnamese Communist Cadres in Laos (Brussels:Centre d'etude du Sud-Est Asiatique et de l'Extreme Orient, 1977Google Scholar).

21 See Zasloff and Brown, 1979 (fn. 20). The estimate of membership in the party and the revolutionary army in 1975 appears in Shawcross, William, “Cambodia Under Its New Rulers,” New York Review of Books, March 4, 1976Google Scholar.

22 Here again, the amount of precise information on circumstances in the different countries varies. For discussions of what is known with respect to each, see: On the Soviet Erickson, Union-John, The Soviet High Command: A Military-Political History 1918–1941 (London:Macmillan, 1962Google Scholar); White, D. Fedotoff, The Growth of the Red Army (Princeton:Princeton University Press, 1944Google Scholar); Liddell-Hart, B. H., ed., The Red Army (New York:Harcourt, Brace, 1956Google Scholar); Fainsod, Merle, How Russia Is Ruled, rev. ed. (Cambridge, Mass.:Harvard University Press, 1967Google Scholar), chap. 14; Colton, 1979 (fn. 17); Colton in the symposium in Studies in Comparative Communism (fn. 20); Adelman (fn. 20).

On the East European countries (German Democratic Republic, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Romania, and Bulgaria)—Ithiel de Sola Pool and others, Satellite Generals: A Study of Military Elites in the Soviet Sphere (Stanford, Calif.:Stanford University Press, 1955Google Scholar); Fischer-Galati, Stephen, ed., Romania (New York:Praeger, 1957Google Scholar); Dellin, L.A.D., Bulgaria (New York:Praeger, 1957Google Scholar); Halecki, O., ed., Poland (New York:Praeger, 1957Google Scholar); Busek, V., ed., Czechoslovakia (New York:Praeger, 1957Google Scholar); Helmreich, E., ed., Hungary (New York:Praeger, 1957Google Scholar); Herspring, Dale R., East German Civil-Military Relations: The Impact of Technology, 1949-1972 (New York:Praeger, 1973Google Scholar); Herspring, Dale R. and Volgyes, Ivan, “The Military as an Agent of Political Socialization in Eastern Europe: A Comparative Framework,” Armed Forces and Society, iii (Winter 1977Google Scholar); Herspring, “Technology and Civil-Military Relations: The Polish and East German Cases”; Volgyes, “The Military as an Agent of Political Socialization: The Case of Hungary”; Walter M. Bacon, Jr., “The Military and the Party in Romania”; A. Ross Johnson, “Soviet-East European Military Relations: An Overview,” all in Herspring and Volgyes, (fn. 15); Dale R. Herspring and Walter M. Bacon, Jr., in the symposium in Studies in Comparative Communism (fn. 20).

On North Chung, Korea—Kiwon, “The North Korean People's Army and the Party,” in Scalapino, Robert A., ed., North Korea Today (New York:Praeger, 1963Google Scholar); Nam, Koon Woo, The North Korean Communist Leadership, 1945-1965: A Study of Factionalism and Political Consolidation (University, Ala.:University of Alabama Press, 1974Google Scholar); Kim, Ilpyong J., Communist Politics in North Korea (New York:Praeger, 1975Google Scholar); Scalapino, Robert A. and Lee, Chong-sik, Communism in Korea (Berkeley:University of California Press, 1972Google Scholar); Vreeland, Nena and others, Area Handbook for North Korea, 2d ed. (Washington, D.C.:U.S. Government Printing Office, 1976Google Scholar); Lee, Chong-Sik, Korean Workers' Party: A Short History (Stanford, Calif.:Hoover Institution Press, 1978Google Scholar).

On Rupen, Mongolia—Robert A., The Mongolian People's Republic (Stanford, Calif.:The Hoover Institution on War, Revolution and Peace, 1966Google Scholar); Murphy, George G. S., Soviet Mongolia: A Study of the Oldest Political Satellite (Berkeley:University of California Press, 1966Google Scholar); Dupuy, Trevor N. and others, Area Handbook, for Mongolia (Washington, D.C.:U.S. Government Printing Office, 1970Google Scholar); Rahul, Ram, “Mongolia Between China and Russia,” Asian Survey, xvii (July 1978Google Scholar).

23 The ensuing analysis draws upon my “Civil-Military Relations: Developmental Contingencies,” Studies in Comparative Communism, xi (Autumn 1978Google Scholar). For more detailed treatments of the developments mentioned-though sometimes within broad interpretive frameworks that do not coincide with my own-see the sources cited in fns. 20 and 22, plus the following:

On the U.S.S.R.—Zbigniew Brzezinski, ed., Political Controls in the Soviet Army (New York: Research Program on the USSR, 1954); Raymond A. Garthoff, “The Marshals and the Party: Soviet Civil-Military Relations in the Postwar Period,” in Harry Coles, ed., Total War and Cold War: Problems in Civilian Control of the Military (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1962); Garthoff, Soviet Military Policy (New York: Praeger, 1966); Kolkowicz, 1967 (fn. 15); Kintner, William R. and Scott, Harriet F., eds., The Nuclear Revolution in Soviet Military Affairs (Norman, Okla.:University of Oklahoma Press, 1968Google Scholar); Wolfe, Thomas, “The Military,” in Kassof, Alan, ed., Prospects for Soviet Society (New York:Praeger, 1970Google Scholar); Holloway, David, Technology, Management, and the Soviet Military Establishment, Adelphi Papers, No. 76 (London:International Institute for Strategic Studies, 1971Google Scholar); Aspaturian, Vernon V., “The Soviet Military-Industrial Complex-Does It Exist?” Journal of International Affairs, xxvi (Spring-Summer 1972Google Scholar); Lee, William T., “The ‘Politico-Military Industrial Complex’ of the U.S.S.R.,” Journal of International Affairs, xxvi (Spring-Summer 1972Google Scholar); Spahr, William J., “The Soviet High Command, 1957–1967: Political Socialization, Modernization and Professionalization,” Ph.D. diss. (George Washington University, 1972Google Scholar); Odom, William E., The Soviet Volunteers: Modernization and Bureaucracy in a Public Mass Organization (Princeton:Princeton University Press, 1973Google Scholar); Jones, Christopher D., “The ‘Revolution in Military Affairs’ and Party-Military Relations, 1965–70,” Survey, xx (Winter 1974Google Scholar); Goldhammer, Herbert, The Soviet Soldier (New York:Crane, Russak, 1975Google Scholar); Warner, Edward L., III, The Military in Contemporary Soviet Politics (New York:Praeger, 1977Google Scholar); Deane, Michael, Political Control of the Soviet Armed Forces (New York: Crane, Russak, 1977Google Scholar); Colton in Herspring and Volgyes (fn. 15); Colton, , “The Zhukov Affair Reconsidered,” Soviet Studies, No. 29 (April 1977CrossRefGoogle Scholar).

On Charles, China—David A., “The Dismissal of Marshal P'eng Teh-huai,” China Quarterly, No. 18 (April-June 1964Google Scholar); Gittings, John, “Military Control and Leadership, 1949–1964,” China Quarterly, No. 26 (April-June 1966Google Scholar); Johnson, Chalmers, “Lin Piao's Army and Its Role in Chinese Society,” Current Scene, iv (July 1 and July 15, 1966Google Scholar); Domes, Juergen, “The Cultural Revolution and the Army,” Asian Survey, viii (May 1968Google Scholar); The Role of the People's Liberation Army (Brussels:Centre d'etude du Sud-Est Asiatique et de l'Extreme Orient, 1969Google Scholar); Joffe, Ellis, “The Chinese Army under Lin Piao: Prelude to Political Intervention,” in Lindbeck, John M. H., ed., China: Management of a Revolutionary Society (Seattle:University of Washington Press, 1971Google Scholar); Joffe, , “The Chinese Army after the Cultural Revolution: The Effects of Intervention,” China Quarterly, No. 55 (July-September 1973CrossRefGoogle Scholar); Joffe (fn. 14); Ghosh, S. K., “Who Commands the Gun-Party or Army,” China Report, viii (January-February and March-April 1972Google Scholar); Chang, Parris H., “Regional Military Power: The Aftermath of the Cultural Revolution,” Asian Survey, xii (December 1972Google Scholar); Chang, , “The Changing Patterns of Military Participation in Chinese Politics,” Orbis, xvi (Fall 1972Google Scholar); Whitson, William W., ed., The Military and Political Power in China in the igyo's (New York:Praeger, 1972Google Scholar); Kau, Ying-mao, The People's Liberation Army and China's Nation-Building (White Plains, N.Y.:International Arts and Sciences Press, 1973Google Scholar); Bridgham, Philip, “The Fall of Lin Piao,” China Quarterly, No. 55 (July-September 1973CrossRefGoogle Scholar); Godwin, Paul H. B., “Professionalism and Politics in the Chinese Armed Forces: A Reconceptualization,”Google Scholar in Herspring and Volgyes (fn. 15).

On Dean, Yugoslavia—Robert W., “Civil-Military Relations in Yugoslavia, 1971–1975,” Armed Forces and Society, in (Fall 1976CrossRefGoogle Scholar); Rusinow, Dennison, The Yugoslav Experiment, 1948–1974 (Berkeley:University of California Press, 1977Google Scholar).

On other East European countries—Herspring, Dale R., “Technology and the Changing Political Officer in the Armed Forces: The Polish and East German Cases,” Studies in Comparative Communism, x (Autumn 1977Google Scholar).

On Indochina (Vietnam, Cambodia, and Laos)—Pike, Douglas, “Vietnam during 1976: Economics in Command,” Asian Survey, xvii (January 1977Google Scholar); Jackson, Karl D., “Cambodia 1977: Gone to Pot,” Asian Survey, xviii (January 1978Google Scholar); Jackson, , “Cambodia 1978: War, Pillage, and Purge in Democratic Kampuchea,” Asian Survey, xix (January 1979Google Scholar); Brown, MacAlister and Zasloff, Joseph J., “Laos 1977: The Realities of Independence,” Asian Survey, xviii (February 1978Google Scholar).

On Ballis, Mongolia—William B., “The Mongolian People's Republic since World War II,” in Staar, Richard F., ed., Aspects of Modern Communism (Columbia, S.C.:University of South Carolina Press, 1968Google Scholar); Despande, G. P., “Mongolia-The Reluctant Buffer,” China Report, iv (March-April 1968Google Scholar); Bradsher, Henry S., “The Sovietization of Mongolia,” Foreign Affairs, Vol. 50 (April 1972CrossRefGoogle Scholar); Heaton, William R. Jr., “Mongolia 1978: Continuing the Transition,” Asian Survey, xix (January 1979Google Scholar).

On North Sohn, Korea—Jae-souk, “Factionalism and Party Control of the Military in Communist North Korea,” Korean Quarterly, ix (Autumn 1967Google Scholar); Chung, Chin O., P'yongyang between Peking and Moscow: North Korea's Involvement in the Sino-Soviet Dispute, 1958–1975 (University, Ala.:University of Alabama Press, 1978Google Scholar).

On Carol, Cuba—K. S., Guerrillas in Power (New York:Hill and Wang, 1970Google Scholar); Dominguez, Jorge I., “Institutionalization and Civil-Military Relations in Cuba,” Cuban Studies, vi (January 1976Google Scholar); exchange between Irving Louis Horowitz and LeoGrande, William M. in Armed Forces and Society, 1 (Summer 1975Google Scholar) and iii (Summer 1977); William M. LeoGrande in the symposium in Studies in Comparative Communism (fn. 20).

24 The notion of a three-stage process is derived from Herspring and Volgyes (fn. 22). However, they label the three stages “transformation,” “consolidation,” and “systems maintenance.”

25 Since assessing the degree to which bureaucratization of politics has occurred in any country is far from a precise undertaking, some analysts may dispute these interpretive judgments. For discussions of some of the evidence on which they rest, however, see Hough, Jerry F., “The Brezhnev Era: The Man and the System,” Problems of Communism, xxv (March-April 1976Google Scholar); Hough, Jerry F. and Fainsod, Merle, How the Soviet Union Is Governed (Cambridge, Mass.:Harvard University Press, 1979Google Scholar); Remington (fn. 15); Dean (fn. 23); Rusinow (fn. 23); Gonzalez, Edward, “Castro and Cuba's New Orthodoxy,” Problems of Communism, xxv (January-February 1976Google Scholar).

26 Besides the general works cited in Ins. 20 and 23, see particularly Harriet Fast Scott's analysis and commentary in Sokolovskiy, V. D., Soviet Military Strategy, 3rd ed. (New York:Crane, Russak, 1975Google Scholar); Johnson, A. Ross, “Yugoslav Total National Defense,” Survival, xv (March-April 1973Google Scholar).

27 For particularly revealing signs of the influence of the revision in Soviet doctrine on civil-military relations in the Soviet Union, see Garthoff, Raymond L., “SALT and the Soviet Military,” Problems of Communism’, xxiv (January-February 1975Google Scholar).

28 See Chang (fn. 23), both articles; Joffe (fns. 14 and 23).

29 See Volgyes (fn. 22). 30 See Remington (fn. 15).

30 See Remington (fn. 15).