Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-dsjbd Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-30T19:39:43.206Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Women and Democratization Conceptualizing Gender Relations in Transition Politics

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  13 June 2011

Georgina Waylen
Affiliation:
University of Salford
Get access

Abstract

This article examines the impact of gender relations on democratization. It considers a number of key questions: what role do women's movements play in the transition to democratic rule and what impact does a return to competitive electoral politics have on women and women's movements. The starting point is a critique of the existing literature on democratization. That literature cannot provide a satisfactory analysis of the role of women in transition politics because of the narrow definitions of democracy used and the top-down focus of much of it. The article then develops a gendered analysis through a comparison of the different processes of transition in Latin America and Central and Eastern Europe. It highlights the significance of the relationship between civil society and the state and the existence of “political space.”

Type
Research Article
Copyright
Copyright © Trustees of Princeton University 1994

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

1 See, e.g., O'Donnell, Guillermo, Schmitter, Philippe C., and Whitehead, Lawrence, eds., Transitions from Authoritarian Rule: Prospects for Democracy, 4 vols. (Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 1986)Google Scholar; Baloyra, Enrique A., ed., Comparing New Democracies: Transition and Consolidation in Mediterranean Europe and the Southern Cone (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1987)Google Scholar; Ethier, David, ed. Democratic Transition and Consolidation in Southern Europe, Latin America and Southeast Asia (Basingstoke, England: Macmillan, 1990)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Diamond, Larry, Linz, Juan J., and Lipset, Seymour Martin, eds., Democracy in Developing Countries, 4 vols. (Boulder, Colo.: Lynne Rienner, 1988)Google Scholar; Huntington, Samuel P., The Third Wave: Democratization in the Late Twentieth Century (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1991)Google Scholar.

2 Remmer, Karen L., “New Wine or Old Bottlenecks,” Comparative Politics 23 (July 1991), 491CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

3 Paul Cammack agrees with Karen Remmer on this point; see Cammack, , “Democratization and Citizenship in Latin America,” in Moran, Michael and Parry, Geraint, eds., Democracy and Democratisation (London: Routledge, 1993)Google Scholar.

4 See Jaquette, Jane S., ed., The Women's Movement in Latin America: Feminism and the Transition to Democracy in Latin America (London: Unwin Hyman, 1989)Google Scholar; and Alvarez, Sonia E., Engendering Democracy in Brazil: Women's Movements in Transition Politics (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990)Google Scholar.

5 See Molyneux, Maxine, “Mobilization without Emancipation? Women's Interests, the State and Revolution in Nicaragua,” Feminist Studies 11, no. 2 (1985)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

6 See Silverberg, Helene, “What Happened to the Feminist Revolution in Political Science?” Western Political Quarterly 43, no. 4 (1990)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

7 See, e.g., Rustow, Dankwart A., “Transitions to Democracy: Towards a Dynamic Model,” Comparative Politics 2, no. 3 (1970)CrossRefGoogle Scholar. This kind of approach is also reflected in some of the classic works of this literature, e.g., Almond, Gabriel A. and Coleman, James S., eds., The Politics of Developing Areas (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1962)Google Scholar; and Binder, Leonard et al., eds., Crises and Sequences in Political Development (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1971)Google Scholar.

8 E.g., Linz, Juan J. and Stepan, Alfred, eds., The Breakdown of Democratic Regimes (Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 1978)Google Scholar.

9 See O'Donnell, Schmitter, and Whitehead (fn. 1); Huntington, Samuel P., “Will More Countries Become Democratic?” Political Science Quarterly 99 (Summer 1984)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Diamond, Linz, and Lipset (fn. 1); Huntington (fn. 1).

10 See Remmer (fn. 2), 487.

11 Guillermo A. O'Donnell, “Introduction to the Latin American Cases,” in O'Donnell, Schmitter, and Whitehead (fn. 1), 2:10.

12 Diamond, Linz, and Lipset (fn. 1), 4:xxv.

13 See Diamond, Linz, and Lipset's introductory chapters to their volumes on Asia, Africa, and Latin America in their series (fn. 1); and O'Donnell, Schmitter, and Whitehead (fn. 1), esp. vols. 3, 4.

14 See Diamond, Larry, “Beyond Authoritarianism and Totalitarianism: Strategies for Democratization,” Washington Quarterly 12 (Winter 1989), 151CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

15 See Remmer (fn. 2), 483.

16 The classic exposition of a structural analysis is Moore, Barrington Jr., The Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy (London: Allen Lane, 1967)Google Scholar.

17 See Diamond (fn. 14), 152.

18 Malloy, James M., “The Politics of Transition in Latin America,” in Malloy, James M. and Seligson, Mitchell A., eds., Authoritarians and Democrats: Regime Transition in Latin America (Pittsburgh, Pa: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1987), 236Google Scholar.

19 See Mitchell A. Seligson, “Democratization in Latin America: The Current Cycle,” in Malloy and Seligson (fn. 18), 3–4.

20 Diamond makes these points, citing O'Donnell, Schmitter, and Whitehead in support of his arguments; see Diamond (fn. 14), 145, 153.

21 Dahl, Robert A., Polyarchy: Participation and Opposition (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1971)Google Scholar; Schumpeter, Joseph A., Capitalism, Socialism, and Democracy (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1943)Google Scholar.

22 Huntington (fn. 9), 195.

23 Diamond, Linz, and Lipset (fn. 1), 4:xvi.

24 Huntington (fn. 9), 195.

25 Karl, , “Dilemmas of Democratization in Latin America,” Comparative Politics 23 (October 1990), 2CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

26 Held, David, Models of Democracy (Oxford: Polity Press, 1987), 164–85Google Scholar.

27 See the work of Carole Pateman, e.g., The Disorder of Women: Democracy, Feminism and Political Theory (Oxford: Polity Press, 1989)Google Scholar.

28 See Jones, Kathleen, “Citizenship in a Women-Friendly Polity,” Signs 15, no. 4 (1990)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Pateman, Carol, “Feminism and Democracy,” in Duncan, Graeme, ed., Democratic Theory and Practice (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983)Google Scholar.

29 See Carole Pateman, “A New Democratic Theory? Political Science, the Public and the Private” (Paper delivered at the plenary session on Democratic Theory Today, IPSA Fifteenth World Congress, Buenos Aires, 1991).

30 See Guillermo A. O'Donnell and Philippe C. Schmitter, in O'Donnell, Schmitter, and Whitehead (fn. 1), 4:48–56.

31 See Grugel, Jean, “Transitions from Authoritarian Rule: Lessons from Latin America,” Political Studies 39 (June 1991)CrossRefGoogle Scholar. See also the work of Scott Mainwaring, e.g., “Urban Popular Movements, Identity, and Democratization in Brazil,” Comparative Political Studies 20 (July 1987)Google Scholar.

32 Philip Oxhorn argues this in the case of Chile. See Oxhorn, , “Democratic Transitions and the Democratization Process in Chile” (Ph.D. diss., Harvard University, 1989)Google Scholar.

33 Garretón, Manuel Antonio, “Popular Mobilization and the Military Regime in Chile: The Complexities of the Invisible Transition,” in Eckstein, Susan, ed., Power and Popular Protest: Latin American Social Movements (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989)Google Scholar.

34 Petras, James, “The Redemocratization Process,” in Jonas, Suzanne and Stein, Nancy, eds., Democracy in Latin America: Visions and Realities (New York: Bergin and Garvey, 1990)Google Scholar.

35 See Hellman, Judith Adler, “The Study of New Social Movements in Latin America and the Question of Autonomy,” LASA Forum 21 (1990)Google Scholar. This omission is beginning to be rectified; see e.g., Foweraker, Joe and Craig, Ann, eds., Popular Movements and Political Change in Mexico (Boulder, Colo.: Lynne Rienner, 1990)Google Scholar.

36 For a discussion of the ungendered nature of much of the social movement literature, see Corcoran-Nantes, Yvonne, “Female Consciousness or Feminist Consciousness? Women's Consciousness Raising in Community-based Struggles in Brazil,” in Radcliffe, Sarah A. and Westwood, Sallie, eds., Viva: Women and Popular Protest in Latin America (London: Routledge, 1993), 138141Google Scholar.

37 Jaquette (fn. 4).

38 See Molyneux (fn. 5).

39 Marysa Navarro, “The Personal Is Political: Las Madres de Plaza de Mayo,” in Eckstein (fn. 33).

40 See Chuchryk, Patricia M., “Subversive Mothers: The Women's Opposition to the Military Regime in Chile,” in Charlton, Sue Ellen, Everett, Jana, and Staudt, Katherine, eds., Women, the State, and Development (Albany: SUNY Press, 1989)Google Scholar.

41 See Schirmer, Jennifer, “‘Those Who Die for Life Cannot Be Called Dead’”: Women and Human Rights Protest in Latin America,” Feminist Review, no. 32 (Summer 1989)Google Scholar; and idem, “The Seeking of Truth and the Gendering of Consciousness: The Comadres of El Salvador and the CONAVIGUA Widows of Guatemala,” in Radcliffe and Westwood (fn. 36).

42 Corcoran-Nantes, Yvonne, “Women and Popular Urban Social Movements in Sao Paulo, Brazil,” Bulletin of Latin American Studies 9, no. 2 (1990)Google Scholar.

43 See Caldeira, Teresa, “Women, Daily Life and Politics,” in Jelin, Elizabeth, ed., Women and Social Change in Latin America (London: Zed Press, 1990)Google Scholar; and Maria del Carmen Feijoó, “The Challenge of Constructing Civilian Peace: Women and Democracy in Argentina,” in Jaquette (fn. 4).

44 For a discussion of the development of the feminist movement in Latin America in the 1980s, see Sternbach, Nancy Saporta et al., “Feminisms in Latin America: From Bogota to San Bernardo,” Signs 17, no. 2 (1994)Google Scholar.

45 See Vargas, Virginia, “The Feminist Movement in Latin America: Between Hope and Disenchantment,” in Pieterse, Jan Nederveen, ed., Emancipations, Modern and Postmodern (London: Sage, 1994)Google Scholar.

46 See Patricia M. Chuchryk, “Feminist Anti-Authoritarian Politics: The Role of Women's Organisations in the Chilean Transition to Democracy,” in Jaquette (fn. 4); and Alvarez, Sonia E., “Politicizing Gender and Engendering Democracy,” in Stepan, Alfred, ed., Democratizing Brazil: Problems of Transition and Consolidation (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989)Google Scholar.

47 Safa, Helen, “Women's Social Movements in Latin America,” Gender and Society 4, no. 3 (1990)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

48 For a discussion of this, see the collection of articles in Afshar, Haleh and Dennis, Carolynne, eds., Women and Adjustment Policies in the Third World (Basingstoke, England: Macmillan, 1994)Google Scholar.

49 See the work of Julieta Kirkwood, e.g., “Women and Politics in Chile,” International Social Science Journal 35, no. 4 (1983)Google Scholar; and idem, Ser Polttica en Chile: Los Nudos de la Sabiduria Feminista (To be a poh'tica in Chile: The knots of a feminist knowledge) (Santiago: Editorial Cuarto Propio, 1990)Google Scholar.

50 See Sonia E. Alvarez, “Women's Movements and Gender Politics in the Brazilian Transition,” in Jaquette (fn. 4).

51 Alvarez, Sonia E., “Women's Participation in the Brazilian ‘People's Church’: A Critical Appraisal,” Feminist Studies 16, no. 2 (1990)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

52 For a discussion of the nature of women's political protest, see Waylen, Georgina, “Rethinking Women's Political Participation and Protest: Chile 1970–90,” Political Studies 40 (June 1994)Google Scholar.

53 See Caldeira (fn. 43).

54 For a discussion of these activities, see Fisher, Jo, Out of the Shadows: Women, Resistance, and Politics in South America (London: Latin American Bureau, 1993)Google Scholar.

55 For a discussion of this in the Chilean context, see Valenzuela, María Elena, “The Evolving Roles of Women under Military Rule,” in Drake, Paul W. and Jaksic, Ivan, eds., The Struggle for Democracy in Chile, 1982–1990 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1991)Google Scholar.

56 For a discussion of this in the Chilean case, see Serrano, Claudia, “Chile entre la autonomía y la integración,” in Transiciones: Mujeres en losprocesos democraticos (Santiago: Isis International, 1990)Google Scholar.

57 For one view of this, see the discussion by Vargas, Virginia, “Women: Tragic Encounters with the Left,” Report on the Americas 25, no. 5 (1994)Google Scholar.

58 Natacha Molina outlines the different policies and strategies adopted by various groups in Chile; see Molina, , “La Mujer,” in Garretón, Manuel Antonio, ed., Propuestas Politkasy Demandas Sociales, vol. 3 (Santiago: FLACSO, 1989)Google Scholar.

59 Safa (fn. 47).

60 Maria del Carmen Feijoó and Monica Gogna, “Women in the Transition to Democracy,” in Jelin (fo. 43).

61 Alvarez (fa. 4).

62 See Valenzuela (fn. 55), 179.

63 See Ann Matear, “SERNAM: Women and the Process of Democratic Transition in Chile” (Paper delivered at the Society of Latin American Studies Conference, Manchester, April 1993).

64 Ibid.

65 See the case studies in Transiciones: Mujeres en los Procesos Democraticos (fn. 56).

66 For a discussion of this in the Chilean context, see Valenzuela, María Elena, “Mujeres y poli'tica: Logros y tensiones en el proceso de redemocratizacion,” Proposiciones 18 (1990)Google Scholar.

67 See Waylen, Georgina, “Women's Movements and Democratization in Chile,” Occasional Paper in Politics and Contemporary History 31 (Salford, England: University of Salford, 1994)Google Scholar.

68 Jenny Pearce, “Disempowering Social Movements: The Chilean Transition” (Paper delivered at a symposium on Social Movements and Democratization, annual conference of the Society of Latin American Studies, Southampton, 1992).

69 These issues were discussed in many of the papers on Latin America presented at the conference on Women and the Transition from Authoritarian Rule in Latin America and Eastern Europe, Berkeley, December 1992, for example, those by Teresa Caldeira, Maria Elena Valenzuela, Maruja Barrig, and Maria del Carmen Feijoo. See also Veronica Schild, “Struggling for Citizenship in Chile: A ‘Resurrection’ of Civil Society” (Paper delivered at the Latin American Studies Association congress, Los Angeles, September, 1992).

70 See Hellman(fn.35).

71 See Schneider, Cathy, “Mobilization at the Grassroots: Shantytowns and Resistance in Authoritarian Chile,” Latin American Perspectives 18 (Winter 1991), 110CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

72 See Anglade, Christian and Fortin, Carlos, “Accumulation, Adjustment and the Autonomy of the State in Latin America,” in Anglade, and Fortin, , eds., The State and Capital Accumulation in Latin America, vol. 2 (London: Macmillan, 1994)Google Scholar.

73 See Loveman, Brian, “Mision Cumplida? Civil Military Relations and the Chilean Political Transition,” Journal of Inter-American Studies and World Affairs 33 (Autumn 1991)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

74 For a discussion of democratization in terms of rights, see Teresa Caldeira, “Justice and Individual Rights: Challenges for Women's Movements and Democratization in Brazil” (Paper delivered at the Conference on Women and the Transition from Authoritarian Rule in Latin America and Eastern Europe, Berkeley, December 1992).

75 See Przeworski, Adam, “The ‘East’ Becomes the ‘South’? The Autumn of the People and the Future of Eastern Europe,” PS 24 (March 1991), 21Google Scholar.

76 See, e.g., Bova, Russell, “Political Dynamics of the Post-Communist Transition: A Comparative Perspective,” World Politics 44 (October 1991)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Palma, Giuseppe Di, “Legitimation from the Top to Civil Society: Politico-Cultural Change in Eastern Europe,” World Politics 44 (October 1991)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Przeworski, Adam, Democracy and the Market: Political and Economic Reforms in Eastern Europe and Latin America (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Nelson, Joan M., “The Politics of Economic Transformation: Is Third World Experience Relevant in Eastern Europe?” World Politics 45 (April 1993)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

77 There are many analyses of women under socialism. See, e.g., Wolchik, Sharon L. and Meyer, Alfred G., eds., Women, State, and Party in Eastern Europe (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1985)Google Scholar; Kruks, Sonia, Rapp, Rayna, and Young, Marilyn, eds., Promissory Notes: Women in the Transition to Socialism (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1989)Google Scholar.

78 See Dölling, Irene, “Between Hope and Helplessness: Women in the GDR after the ‘Turning Point,’” Feminist Review 39 (Winter 1991)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

79 See Einhorn, Barbara, “Where Have All the Women Gone? Women and the Women's Movement in East Central Europe,” Feminist Review 39 (Winter 1991)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

80 See Fuszara, Malgorzata, “Legal Regulation of Abortion in Poland,” Signs 17 (Autumn 1991), 128CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

81 For a discussion of this process in Poland, see Siemienska, R., “Polish Women and Polish Politics since World War II,” Journal of Women's History 3 (Spring 1991)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

82 Einhorn, Barbara, “Emancipated Women or Hardworking Mums? Women in the Former German Democratic Republic,” in Corrin, Chris, ed., Superwoman and the Double Burden (London: Scarlet Press, 1994)Google Scholar.

83 Barbara J. Jancar, “Women in the Opposition in Poland and Czechoslovakia in the 1970s,” in Wolchik and Meyer (fn. 77).

84 See Molyneux, Maxine, “Marxism, Feminism and the Demise of the Soviet Model,” in Grant, Rebecca and Newland, Kathleen, eds., Gender and International Relations (Milton Keynes, England: Open University Press, 1991)Google Scholar.

85 For a discussion of this process, see White, Stephen, Gorbachev in Power (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990)Google Scholar.

86 Mary Buckley, “The Women Question' in the Contemporary Soviet Union,” in Kruks, Rapp, and Young (fn. 77).

87 Nechemias, Carol, “The Prospects for a Soviet Women's Movement: Opportunities and Obstacles,” in Sedaitis, Judith B. and Butterfield, Jim, eds., Perestroika from Below: Social Movements in the Soviet Union (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1991)Google Scholar.

88 For a description of the groups that did exist then, see Laurie Essig and Tatiana Mamonova, “Perestroika for Women,” in Sedaitis and Butterfield (fn. 87), 107.

89 See, e.g., Kiss, Yudit, “Women and the Second ‘No’: Women in Hungary,” Feminist Review 39 (Winter 1991)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

90 For figures, see Janova, Mira and Sineau, Mariette, “Women's Participation in Political Power in Europe: An Essay in East-West Comparision,” Women's Studies International Forum 15, no. 1 (1994)Google Scholar.

91 See Einhorn (fn. 79), 17; and Watson, Peggy, “The Rise of Masculinism in Eastern Europe,” New Left Review 198 (March-April 1993)Google Scholar.

92 For a discussion of this, see Rosenberg, Dorothy J., “Shock Therapy: GDR Women in Transition from a Socialist Welfare State to a Social Market Economy,” Signs 17 (Autumn 1991), 140CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

93 Unpublished interview by Patricia Harbord with Ina Merkel, April 5, 1990.

94 For a discussion of this whole episode, see Schaeffer-Hegel, B., “Makers and Victims of Unification: German Women and the Two Germanies,” Women's Studies International Forum 15, no. 1 (1994)Google Scholar.

95 See Einhorn (fn. 79), 29.

96 Quoted in Castle, Mita, “Our Woman in Prague,” Catalyst 4 (July-September 1990)Google Scholar.

97 See Cockburn, Cynthia, “Second among Equals,” Marxism Today (July 1989)Google Scholar.

98 See, e.g., Einhorn, Barbara, Cinderella Goes to Market: Gender, Citizenship and the Women's Movement in Eastern Europe (London: Verso, 1993)Google Scholar.

99 Barbara Einhorn, “Women in Eastern Europe” (Paper delivered at the British Sociological Association/Political Studies Association conference on Women and Citizenship, London, February 1991).

100 See Heinen, Jacqueline, “Polish Democracy Is a Masculine Democracy,” Women's Studies International Forum 15, no. 1 (1994)Google Scholar; and Fuszara (fn. 80).

101 Much of the new literature discusses the impact of these changes, particularly in the former GDR. See, e.g., Behrend, Hanna, “Women Catapulted into a Different Social Order: Women in East Germany,” Women s History Review 1, no. 1 (1994)Google Scholar; and Beyer, Marina, “The Situation of East German Women in Post-Unification Germany,” Women's Studies International Forum 15, no. 1 (1994)Google Scholar.

102 For figures, see Watson (fn. 91), 78.

103 See Julia Szalai, “Women and Democratization: Some Notes on Recent Trends in Hungary” (Paper delivered at the Conference on Women and the Transition from Authoritarian Rule in Latin America and Eastern Europe, Berkeley, December 1992). For an analysis that disagrees with this argument, see Pearson, Ruth, “Questioning Perestroika: A Socialist Feminist Interrogation,” Feminist Review 39 (Winter 1991)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

104 Kiss (fn. 89), 51.

105 See figures published in the Guardian, January 26, 1993, p. 8.

106 Molyneux, , “The Woman Question' in the Age of Perestroika,” New Left Review 183 (September-October 1990), 53Google Scholar.

107 Seminar given by Anastasya Posadskaya, “Women and Perestroika,” Manchester, September 1990.

108 See Konstantinova, Valentina, “The Women's Movement in the USSR: A Myth or a Real Challenge,” in Rai, Shirin, Pilkington, Hilary, and Phizacklea, Anne, eds., Women in the Face of Change: The Soviet Union, Eastern Europe and China (London: Routledge, 1994)Google Scholar.

109 “Concept of Government Program for the Improvement of the Position of Women and the Family and the Protection of Mother and Child” (Manuscript, Moscow, 1990)Google Scholar.

110 See Buckley's, Mary preliminary discussion of the development of women's organizations in the former USSR in “Gender and Reform,” in Merrivale, Catherine and Ward, Chris, eds., Perestroika: The Historical Perspective (London: Longman, 1991)Google Scholar.

111 Safa (fn. 47), 355.

112 See Jankowska, Hanna, “Abortion, Church and Politics in Poland,” Feminist Review 39 (Wintei 1991), 176CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

113 Watson (fn. 91), 82.