Laboratory assays were conducted to determine the sensitivity of tomato and tobacco cell suspension cultures and tomato and pepper cotyledons to clomazone. A comparison of fresh weight and carotenoid content indicated up to a three-fold difference between the clomazone-tolerant tobacco and clomazone-susceptible tomato cell suspension cultures. In contrast, an approximate 60-fold difference between the tolerant pepper and susceptible tomato cotyledons was observed when total chlorophyll and carotenoid contents were measured. The effect of clomazone and its possible metabolites on in vivo and in vitro extractable IPP isomerase (EC 5.3.3.2) and prenyltransferase (EC 2.5.1.29) activity was investigated. There was no clear inhibitory effect of clomazone or possible clomazone metabolites upon enzyme activity in tomato or tobacco cell suspension cultures or on light or dark grown tomato or pepper cotyledons. No specific enzymatic target site of clomazone was identified in correlation with the reduction in total chlorophyll or carotenoid content.

Metolachlor has been evaluated both as a herbicide for use in cultivated oats (Avena sativa L.) and for its potential as an alternative herbicide for the control of herbicide-resistant rigid ryegrass. Eight herbicide-resistant and two susceptible biotypes of rigid ryegrass were tested for their susceptibility to metolachlor. Response to metolachlor was determined both in soil and an agar germination medium. The LD50 for metolachlor in agar for a susceptible biotype (VLR1) was 0.13 μM. Five biotypes, SLR5 (6.9 fold), SLR31 (5.2 fold), SLR10 (2.5 fold), NLR12 (2.1 fold) and VLR69 (1.9 fold), were cross-resistant to metolachlor when compared with VLR1. Relative response of the biotypes was similar in both soil and agar, validating the use of an agar germination test to determine the susceptibility of rigid ryegrass biotypes to metolachlor. Biotypes cross-resistant to metolachlor also were cross-resistant to alachlor (SLR5 6.7 fold, SLR31 5.9 fold, SLR10 2.4 fold, and VLR69 1.6 fold with the LD50 for VLR1 being 0.49 μM) and propachlor (SLR57.2 fold, SLR31 7.2 fold, SLR10 3.0 fold and VLR69 2.5 fold with the LD50 for VLR1 being 0.47 μM) indicating that cross-resistance extends to other members of the chloroacetamide group. Cross-resistance to chloroacetamides was observed in biotypes that previously had been reported as cross-resistant to other herbicides. In contrast, biotypes with limited herbicide histories were generally not cross-resistant to metolachlor. These results indicate that there is a high probability of chloroacetamide cross-resistance in populations of herbicide-resistant rigid ryegrass.

The mode of action of quinclorac was investigated in broadleaf and grass species. Quinclorac induced characteristic auxinlike symptoms in broadleaf species but not in susceptible grasses. In susceptible grasses, quinclorac caused necrotic bands near the zones of elongation in shoots and roots. Electrolyte leakage was induced by quinclorac in smooth crabgrass and other susceptible grasses but not in tolerant grass or susceptible broadleaf species. In smooth crabgrass, increased electrolyte leakage and reduced fresh weight were rate dependent, and initially specific to young tissues. An inhibitory effect on elongation in the youngest leaf of smooth crabgrass and in primary roots of corn was detected 6 and 3 h after quinclorac treatment, respectively. Electrolyte leakage required more than 12 and 6 h in the leaf and root, respectively. Depolarization of corn root cell membrane potential was not observed in a 6-h treatment period. Results presented here provide additional evidence that quinclorac activity differs between susceptible broadleaf and grass species. In addition, the action of quinclorac appears to be similar in both shoot and root tissues of susceptible grasses. It is proposed that quinclorac-induced electrolyte leakage in susceptible grasses is a secondary response and that the primary mechanism of action involves inhibition of an as yet unknown metabolic process associated with cell expansion.

Nicosulfuron and rimsulfuron are two selective postemergence sulfonylurea herbicides commercialized, respectively, in Europe and USA for weed control in maize. They are under development in Canada as a 1:1 premix (DPX-79406). The objective of the present study was to investigate the effects of these herbicides and their interactions on acetolactate synthase (ALS) activity of selected annual weed species. Each nicosulfuron and rimsulfuron treatment used over a concentration range of 0.01 to 10 μM produced a distinct pattern of ALS inhibition for common ragweed, proso millet, redroot pigweed, smooth crabgrass, and wild oats. Based on ALS specific activity, I50 values for each herbicide differed slightly among the five weed species. However, rimsulfuron was much more inhibitory to ALS than was nicosulfuron. Common ragweed ALS activity increased linearly from 30 to 120 min, even in the continual presence of both herbicides in the assay buffer. This suggests the reversibility of their interaction with ALS. Delaying nicosulfuron (1 μM) or rimsulfuron (0.1 μM) additions to the assay buffer, after initiating the reaction with the enzyme, resulted in a quadratic increase of common ragweed ALS activity. In the continual presence of 0.1 μM of rimsulfuron, addition of 0.1 or 1 μM nicosulfuron did not affect ALS activity any further. However, in the continual presence of 0.1 μM of nicosulfuron, delaying rimsulfuron addition caused an increase in ALS activity. This increase was lower in the presence of 1 μM of nicosulfuron. Inhibition of common ragweed ALS by nicosulfuron and rimsulfuron was not independent of each other, suggesting some competition between the two herbicides for a common binding site on ALS.

Absorption, translocation, root release, and metabolism of imazethapyr by leafy spurge were determined under growth chamber conditions. 14C-imazethapyr was applied to vegetatively propagated leafy spurge plants in a 1% solution of 28% urea ammonium nitrate containing 0.25% by vol nonionic surfactant Plants were harvested 2 and 8 d after herbicide application. Imazethapyr absorption increased from 9% at 2d to 20% at 8d. Acropetal and basipetal translocation out of the treated leaf was observed, with 3.4 to 4.2% of the applied radioactivity accumulating in the root by the end of the 8-d time course. Eight days after herbicide application, radioactivity in dormant and elongated adventitious shoot buds was twofold higher than in root tissue (compared on a dry wt basis). Two days after herbicide application, 93% of the radioactivity remained as intact imazethapyr in the treated leaf, crown, root, and shoot buds. Eight days after application, crown, roots, and adventitious shoot buds had metabolized an average of 61, 36, and 47% of the imazethapyr, respectively, while only 14% was metabolized in the treated leaf. The primary metabolite cochromatographed with 5-hydroxyethyl-imazethapyr standard.

Whole plant studies were conducted to examine the effects of glyphosate on components of carbon balance, transpiration, and biomass partitioning of wheat plants grown in Olton sandy clay loam soil and in a well-aerated fritted clay medium under controlled environmental conditions. Well-irrigated plants were transferred from a nursery room into a test chamber about 48 d after planting. Two to five days later, 12 to 42 ml of a glyphosate solution with a concentration of 480 mg ai L–1 were sprayed until full coverage of the foliage. Environmental conditions in the chamber were air temperature 25 C, dew point 18 C, windspeed 1.1 m s–1, and PPFD 1500 mmol m–2 s–1 (at the top of the foliage) for 12 h daily. Glyphosate treatment resulted in destruction of the root system, as determined at the end of the tests, and at the start of tests using companion plants. Plants grown in soil lost 0.53 kg kg–1 of the initial root mass, while this loss was 0.38 kg kg–1 in plants grown in fritted clay. Glyphosate treatment rapidly inhibited daily rates of gross carbon uptake and transpiration of wheat plants grown in both media. Effects occurred more than twice as rapidly in plants grown in soil as in fritted day. Similarity in the patterns of inhibition of gross carbon uptake and transpiration suggests that glyphosate may also affect leaf stomata. After applying glyphosate, daily rates of carbon loss increased for 3 d in soil-grown plants but remained almost constant for 10 d in plants grown in fritted clay; thereafter, the rates of carbon loss declined. The early increase or the constancy of carbon loss observed after applying glyphosate was related to catabolic processes occurring in roots.

Factors accounting for the differential response of five quackgrass biotypes to primisulfuron were compared. Previous field and greenhouse experiments had identified a biotype from Montpelier, OH, as being less susceptible to primisulfuron than biotypes from Amherst, MA; Mahnomen, MN; Fargo, ND; and State College, PA. Differences in shoot, root, and rhizome fresh weights and rhizome bud numbers did not account for the reduced susceptibility of the Montpelier, OH, biotype to primisulfuron. Spray retention was lower in biotypes from OH and MA compared to the others. Absorption of 14C following 14C-primisulfuron application was greater in the Amherst, MA, biotype compared to the others. Only 29% of absorbed 14C was present as primisulfuron in the Montpelier, OH, biotype versus 41 to 45% in the other biotypes 72 h after application. The amount of primisulfuron present in the Montpelier, OH, biotype 72 h after application was less than half the amount present in the other four biotypes due to reduced spray retention and faster metabolism. These factors combined explain lower susceptibility of the Montpelier, OH, biotype to primisulfuron.

This paper reports on a microtitre plate version of the 2,6-dichlorophenol-indophenol (DCPIP) reduction assay. DCPIP reduction rates of alfalfa thylakoid membranes were determined by measuring absorbance at 600 nm before and after a 1 min illumination period. The membranes were near light-saturated at intensities above 600 μE m–2 s–1. Saturation of thylakoid membranes with DCPIP occurred above 120 μM. DCPIP reduction rates increased linearly with chlorophyll concentrations from 0.25 to 2 μg. The rate of DCPIP reduction was linear throughout a 2 min illumination period (R2 = 0.99). The assay was sensitive enough to terbacil to differentiate between a 20% change in the I50 concentration. DCPIP reduction rates were sensitive to concentrations of terbacil as low as 100 nM. It only takes 13 minutes to load and read 96 samples using the microtitre plate assay compared to 5.5 h using the conventional procedure.

A laboratory study was conducted to determine the effects of two adjuvants and temperatures at time of treatment on efficacy, absorption, and translocation of thidiazuron defoliant on cotton. Five days after treatment at 30/21 C day/night temperatures, leaf drop was 17% with no adjuvant, 37% with addition of crop oil concentrate, 40% with ammonium sulfate, and 75% with two adjuvants combined. At 21/13 C day/night temperatures, there was less than 10% leaf drop with all treatments. At 10 d after treatment, leaf drop was not different among treatments at the high or low temperatures. Shoot regrowth at high and low temperature was reduced 55 to 60% with addition of both adjuvants and 44 to 50% with each adjuvant or with no adjuvant when compared to plants defoliated by hand. Absorption of 14C-thidiazuron was not affected by variations in temperature during the time of treatment but was affected by adjuvants. With no adjuvants, absorption was 7 to 10%. With 1.25% by vol crop oil concentrate, absorption was 33 to 46%. Addition of ammonium sulfate resulted in 18 to 19% absorption, and the combination of ammonium sulfate and crop oil concentrate increased absorption to 65 to 68%. There was no movement of radiolabel away from treated leaves as determined by autoradiographs of treated plants.

Isoxaben is an inhibitor of the synthesis of cellulose from glucose. Some dicot weed species are relatively insensitive to isoxaben inhibition. This study investigates mechanisms by which decreased sensitivity may occur in three dicot weed species: catchweed bedstraw, redroot pigweed, and velvetleaf. Dose response curves were generated to determine I50 values for the inhibition of glucose incorporation into cellulose by isoxaben and compared to that of a sensitive species, mouse-ear cress. Metabolic detoxification and uptake rates were measured and the degree of tolerance conferred by these mechanisms was calculated. In all cases, metabolic detoxification was negligible. Lower uptake rates were significant but minor components of tolerance in all species. It is suggested that the principal cause of isoxaben tolerance in these dicot weed species is decreased sensitivity at the target site.

The effect of chlorotoluron on different slender foxtail populations that survived normal agricultural rates of this herbicide (2.5 to 3.5 kg ai ha–1) was investigated under controlled laboratory conditions. Among five populations tested, two had tolerance for the herbicide. The ED50 values for these biotypes ranged from 0.33 to 2.43 kg ha–1. Assays with radiolabeled 14C-chlorotoluron indicated similar absorption and translocation of the herbicide between susceptible and resistant biotypes. Chlorophyll fluorescence and Hill reaction analysis seem to support the view that the mechanism of resistance of one biotype to the herbicide is due to degradation/detoxification rather than to modification of the target site, although compartmentation processes cannot be ruled out. This resistant biotype had high tolerance to other photosynthetic inhibiting phenylureas, including linuron, chlorbromuron, diuron, monolinuron, and neburon.

A 2-yr field study was conducted at Fayetteville, AR, to determine the effect of Palmer amaranth interference on soybean growth and yield. Palmer amaranth density had little effect on soybean height, but soybean canopy width ranged from 77 cm in the weed-free check to 35 cm in plots with 10 plants m–1 of row 12 wk after emergence. Soybean yield reduction was highly correlated to Palmer amaranth biomass at 8 wk after emergence and maturity, soybean biomass at 8 wk after emergence, and Palmer amaranth density. Soybean yield reduction was 17, 27, 32, 48, 64, and 68%, respectively, for Palmer amaranth densities of 033, 0.66, 1, 2, 333, and 10 plants m–1 of row. Soybean yield reduction and Palmer amaranth biomass were linear to approximately 2 Palmer amaranth m–1 of row, suggesting intraspecific interference between adjacent Palmer amaranth is initiated at Palmer amaranth densities between 2 and 3.33 plants m–1 of row.

Imazamethabenz, an acetohydroxyacid synthase (AHAS)-inhibiting herbicide, was applied at a sublethal rate (200 g ai ha–1) to foliage of greenhouse-grown wild oat plants at the 2-leaf stage without tillers. Main shoot tissues were sampled 1 to 2 wk after imazamethabenz treatment and prepared for light microscopic examination. Histological observations showed that imazamethabenz treatment did not produce drastic changes on leaf structures but did affect chloroplast integrity of fully expanded 2nd leaf and inhibited differentiation of the young 3rd leaf 1 wk after application. The internode length and the number of cells in internodes of the herbicide-treated main stem were greatly reduced, presumably due to the inhibition by imazamethabenz of intercalary meristem cell division in early stages of internode elongation. One week after imazamethabenz application, histochemical studies revealed an increased accumulation of starch granules in chloroplasts of the 2nd leaf but reduced starch levels in the main stem. This confirmed the hypothesis that AHAS inhibitors affected phloem transport of photosynthates.

Benoxacor, CGA-185072, and MON-13900 were evaluated in laboratory studies as safeners to reduce injury caused by primisulfuron when corn has been previously treated with terbufos. Without safeners, shoot length was reduced 30% when primisulfuron (78 gm ha-1) followed terbufos (2.6 kg ha-1) applications. Stunting was significantly reduced by preemergence applications of CGA-185072 and MON-13900 at 200 g ai ha-1; however, shoot length was still reduced by 21 and 12%, respectively. Benoxacor did not reduce primisulfuron injury in corn previously treated with terbufos. Safening by CGA-185072 and MON-13900 was not due to reduced primisulfuron uptake or altered translocation. MON-13900 was further evaluated for its effects on primisulfuron metabolism. MON-13900 increased primisulfuron metabolism in terbufos-treated shoots by more than 50%. This increase in metabolism appears to be the mechanism of safening by MON-13900.

Field trials were carried out in 1989 and 1990 at St-Augustin, near Québec City, Canada, to determine the critical periods of quackgrass control in potato submitted to three levels of infestation. Potato yield losses due to quackgrass interference increased with quackgrass infestation and length of duration of interference. Quackgrass interference influenced marketable tuber yields more than total tuber yields. Duration of the critical period varied depending on the level of quackgrass infestation and year. Based on an arbitrary 5% level of marketable yield loss, the critical period started at ca. 15 days after emergence (DAE) of potato at low level of infestation, and at ca. 3 DAE at medium level of infestation. At high level of infestation, the critical period began prior to the emergence of potato. The end of the critical period of quackgrass removal was extremely variable across quackgrass infestation level and year and ranged from 23 to 68 DAE of potato at a 5 % yield loss level. It appears that onset of interference varied less than the end of it, indicating that early quackgrass control is necessary to prevent yield loss.

Studies were conducted to examine the micromorphology of leaf surfaces of coca and nova plants and to determine which spray diluents provided optimum coverage of leaf surfaces. Adaxial leaf surfaces of both species were covered with a smooth layer of polygonal-shaped epidermal cells which were covered with wax crystals. Abaxial leaf surfaces were composed only of papillae cells and the guard and subsidiary cells surrounding stomata. Abaxial leaf surfaces of both species were also covered with wax crystals. Average wax weights were 28 to 53 μg cm−2. Water droplets containing an organosilicone surfactant at 0.1% by vol spread better on leaf surfaces that did other adjuvants. Droplets of several different petroleum-based oils spread much better on leaf surfaces than either water droplets with adjuvants or droplets of soybean or cottonseed oil.

Greenhouse experiments showed that yellow nutsedge shoot number and shoot and root dry weights were reduced by root-knot nematodes and chile peppers. Root-knot nematodes increased and chile peppers decreased the number of yellow nutsedge tubers. Yellow nutsedge tuber germination was reduced by chile peppers but not by root-knot nematodes. Yellow nutsedge established from root-knot nematode-infected tubers produced more tubers than noninfected tubers. Root-knot nematode populations became established on yellow nutsedge root systems when plants were established from tubers previously cultured with root-knot nematodes. Metolachlor stunted chile peppers, eliminated yellow nutsedge, and influenced root-knot nematode populations through reduction of host plant root mass. However, when root-knot nematodes were present, yellow nutsedge tuber germination was not affected by metolachlor. This research indicates that the pests do not exist independently and that their management may be interrelated.

A study under glasshouse conditions determined the effect of germination stimulants, potassium nitrate and ethephon, on emergence of several pure lines of wild oat from soil. Effect of the two chemicals on stimulating emergence was variable and no synergism noted when used together. Examination of exhumed seed showed that these treatments reduced seed viability. By counting the number of dead and adding to those that emerged, total seed removed from the soil was obtained. All treatments removed seed from the soil seedbank, especially when seed was old, near the soil surface, was primary seed, or from low or intermediate dormancy lines. However, because of the insensitivity of a large proportion of the seed and the high rates required it is unlikely that either potassium nitrate or ethephon has practical use for field application.

Growth, competitiveness, and fecundity differences between resistant (R) and susceptible (S) biotypes affect management strategies. This greenhouse research examines growth, competitiveness, and fecundity of chlorsulfuron-resistant (R) and -susceptible (S) kochia collected from North Dakota and Kansas. In noncompetitive studies, sulfonylurea R and S kochia biotypes from Kansas and North Dakota had similar growth rates and seed production. All biotypes produced about 12000 seeds per plant. Competitiveness of R and S biotypes from Kansas was similar. Interbiotype competition reduced R and S plant biomass more than intrabiotype competition. The relative competitiveness of the R and S biotypes was 0.75 and 0.85, respectively. The resistance trait did not reduce growth, seed production, and competitiveness of R compared to S kochia in greenhouse studies.

Winter wheat cultivars that are competitive with weeds help control weeds in crop rotations. Ten winter wheat cultivars were evaluated for interference with summer annual grasses in the wheat and the subsequent grain sorghum crop in a winter wheat-ecofallow sorghum-fallow rotation in which there are two 10–mo fallow periods and two crops in 3 yr during 1983 to 1987. The medium–tall (100 to 109 cm tall) and medium–statured (90 to 99 cm tall) winter wheat cultivars (‘Buckskin’, ‘Siouxland’, ‘Lancota’, ‘Centurk 78’, and ‘Brule’) were more competitive than medium-short (80 to 89 cm tall) and short (68 to 79 cm tall) cultivars (‘Eagle’, ‘Homestead’, ‘Colt’, ‘Vona’, and ‘TAM 101’). Atrazine plus paraquat was applied to all cultivars 30 d after wheat harvest. When grain sorghum was planted in areas previously seeded with medium–tall and medium-statured winter wheat, summer annual grass weed biomass in sorghum was 61% less than in grain sorghum seeded into areas previously planted with medium-short and short wheat cultivars. Use of pendimethalin plus 2,4–D in winter wheat and glyphosate plus alachlor in grain sorghum eliminated differences in summer annual grass weed density and weed biomass among wheat cultivars. Sorghum grain yields were improved 7% when herbicides were used in the winter wheat and sorghum but value of the increase was less than cost of herbicides. Substituting less costly herbicides for herbicides used in this study still would not have been enough to pay for cost of herbicides for five cultivars. Grain sorghum grown on weed–free stubble of medium–tall and medium–statured winter wheat produced more grain than grain sorghum grown after medium–short and short-statured winter wheat by 5%. Volunteer wheat density during the fallow period following grain sorghum was lower in areas originally seeded to Centurk 78 and Siouxland wheat while volunteer wheat density was higher in areas planted to Homestead and Vona.