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The Rights of Future Generations within the Post-Paris Climate Regime

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  17 October 2017

Bridget Lewis
Bridget Lewis*
Affiliation:
Faculty of Law, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane (Australia). Email: [email protected].
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Abstract

In recognition of the intrinsic links between climate change and human rights, many have argued that human rights should play a leading role in guiding state responses to climate change. A group whose human rights will inevitably be affected by climate action (or inaction) today are the members of future generations. Yet, despite their particular vulnerability, future generations so far have gone largely unnoticed in human rights analyses. An adequate response to climate change requires that we recognize and address the human rights consequences for future generations, and consider the legal, practical and theoretical questions involved. This article attempts to answer these questions with a particular focus on the Paris Agreement. It argues that the recognition of state obligations towards future generations is compatible with human rights theory, and that these obligations must be balanced against the duties owed to current generations. The article concludes with a number of suggestions for how this balance could be pursued.

Keywords

Climate changeHuman rightsFuture generationsIntergenerational equityParis Agreement
Type
Symposium: Rights-Based Approaches to Climate Change
Information
Transnational Environmental Law , Volume 7 , Issue 1 , March 2018 , pp. 69 - 87
Copyright
© Cambridge University Press 2017 

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Footnotes

†

This contribution is part of a collection of articles growing out of the conference ‘A Rights-Based Approach to Climate Change’, held at QUT Law School, Brisbane (Australia), on 18–19 Feb. 2016.

The author is grateful for the very helpful comments of anonymous TEL reviewers, as well as the feedback of Fiona McDonald, Helen Berents, Carmel O’Sullivan, and Cassandra Cross.

References

1 Much has been written on the relationship between human rights and climate change. See, e.g., Atapattu, S., Human Rights Approaches to Climate Change: Challenges and Opportunities (Routledge, 2016)Google Scholar; Bodansky, D., ‘Climate Change and Human Rights: Unpacking the Issues’ (2010) 38(3) Georgia Journal of International and Comparative Law, pp. 511–525 Google Scholar; Humphreys, S. (ed.), Human Rights and Climate Change (Cambridge University Press, 2010)Google Scholar; Lawrence, P., Justice for Future Generations: Climate Change and International Law (Edward Elgar, 2015)Google Scholar; McInerney-Lankford, S., Darrow, M. & Rajamani, L., Human Rights and Climate Change: A Review of the International Legal Dimensions (World Bank, 2011)Google Scholar; Limon, M., ‘Human Rights and Climate Change: Constructing a Case for Political Action’ (2009) 33(2) Harvard Environmental Law Review, pp. 439–476 Google Scholar; Knox, J., ‘Linking Human Rights and Climate Change at the United Nations’ (2009) 33(2) Harvard Environmental Law Review, pp. 477–498 Google Scholar; Malé Declaration on the Human Dimension of Global Climate Change, 14 Nov. 2007, available at: http://www.ciel.org/Publications/Male_Declaration_Nov07.pdf; Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, Report of the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights on the Relationship between Climate Change and Human Rights, UN Doc. A/HRC/10/61, 15 Jan. 2009 (OHCHR Report).

2 Pedersen, O.W., ‘The Janus-Head of Human Rights and Climate Change: Adaptation and Mitigation’ (2011) 80(4) Nordic Journal of International Law, pp. 403–423 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Lewis, B., ‘Balancing Human Rights in Climate Change Policies’, in O. Quirico & M. Boumghar (eds), Climate Change and Human Rights: International and Comparative Law Perspectives (Routledge, 2016 ), pp. 39–52 Google Scholar.

3 Knox, n. 1 above; Limon, n. 1 above, pp. 450–9; Bodansky, n. 1 above, p. 524.

4 J. Barnett, ‘Human Rights and Vulnerability to Climate Change’, in Humphreys, n. 1 above, pp. 257–71; Bodansky, n. 1 above, p. 517; Limon, n. 1 above, pp. 450–1; Pedersen, O.W., ‘Climate Change and Human Rights: Amicable or Arrested Development?’ (2010) 1(2) Journal of Human Rights and the Environment, pp. 236–258 CrossRefGoogle Scholar, at 248.

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7 Paris Agreement, Paris (France), 12 Dec. 2015, in force 4 Nov. 2016, available at: http://unfccc.int/paris_agreement/items/9485.php.

8 New York, NY (US), 9 May 1992, in force 21 Mar. 1994, available at: http://unfccc.int/essential_background/convention/items/6036.php.

9 Paris Agreement, n. 7 above, Preamble, para. 11.

10 ‘COP21: “States’ Human Rights Obligations Encompass Climate Change – UN Expert”’, OHCHR Press Release, 3 Dec. 2015, available at http://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=16836&LangID=E.

11 Kyoto (Japan), 11 Dec. 1997, in force 16 Feb. 2005, available at: http://unfccc.int/kyoto_protocol/items/2830.php.

12 For a detailed discussion of the key features of the Paris Agreement and its context, see Savaresi, A., ‘The Paris Agreement: A New Beginning?’ (2016) 34(1) Journal of Energy and Natural Resources Law, pp. 16–26 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Bodansky, D., ‘The Paris Climate Change Agreement: A New Hope’ (2016) 110(2) American Journal of International Law, pp. 288–330 Google Scholar.

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15 Ad Hoc Working Group on the Durban Platform for Enhanced Action, Streamlined and Consolidated Text, Bonn (Germany), 11 Jun. 2015, available at: http://unfccc.int/files/bodies/awg/application/pdf/adp2-9_i3_11jun2015t1630_np.pdf.

16 Ad Hoc Working Group on the Durban Platform for Enhanced Action, Draft Agreement and Draft Decision on Workstreams 1 and 2 of the Ad Hoc Working Group on the Durban Platform for Enhanced Action, Bonn (Germany), 23 Oct. 2015, available at: https://unfccc.int/files/bodies/application/pdf/[email protected] (Bonn Draft Agreement).

17 Geneva Negotiating Text, n. 14 above, Section C, Art. 2.2.

18 UNFCCC, n. 8 above, Art. 3.1.

19 Bonn Draft Agreement, n. 16 above.

20 Paris Agreement, n. 7 above, Preamble, para. 11.

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23 Geneva Negotiating Text, n. 14 above, Art. 12 bis.

24 Bonn Draft Agreement, n. 16 above, Art. 2.2. The passages in square brackets were presented as alternative wording for state parties to consider.

25 Art. 15 Paris Agreement establishes an expert committee to facilitate implementation of and promote compliance. The committee is to operate in a transparent, non-adversarial and non-punitive manner.

26 Human Rights Watch, ‘Human Rights in Climate Pact Under Fire: Norway, Saudis, US Blocking Strong Position’, 7 Dec. 2015, available at: https://www.hrw.org/news/2015/12/07/human-rights-climate-pact-under-fire; Deconstructing Paris, n. 22 above; Deconstructing Paris, ‘Days 4–5 Negotiations Heating Up’, 5 Dec. 2015, available at: http://paristext2015.com/2015/12/days-4-5-negotiations-heating-up; M. Rowling, ‘Climate Talks Take a Wrong Turn on Human Rights, Campaigners Say’, Thomson Reuters Foundation News, 4 Dec. 2015, available at: http://news.trust.org//item/20151203224453-oyg5w.

27 Rowling, ibid.

28 Vidal, J. & Vaughan, A., ‘Climate Talks: Anger over Removal of Human Rights Reference from Final Draft’, The Guardian, 11 Dec. 2015, available at: https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2015/dec/11/paris-climate-talks-anger-removal-reference-human-rights-from-final-draft Google Scholar.

29 Rowling, n. 26 above; Human Rights Watch, n. 26 above; Deconstructing Paris, n. 22 above.

30 Draft Text on COP-21 Agenda Item 4(b), Durban Platform for Enhanced Action (Decision 1/CP.17), Adoption of a Protocol, another Legal Instrument, or an Agreed Outcome with Legal Force under the Convention Applicable to all Parties, 9 Dec. 2015, Proposal by the President, Preamble, available at: http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/2015/cop21/eng/da02.pdf.

31 Paris Agreement, n. 7 above, Preamble, para. 10.

32 Atapattu, n. 1 above, p. 46.

33 Savaresi, n. 12 above, p. 25.

34 Paris Agreement, n. 7 above, Preamble, paras 8, 16; Arts 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10.

35 Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development, ‘Our Common Future’, UN Doc. A/42/427, 4 Aug. 1987; Report of the UN Conference on Environment and Development, ‘Rio Declaration on Environment and Development’, UN Doc. A/Conf.151/26, 14 Jun. 1992.

36 E.g., the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development refers specifically to human rights among its guiding principles: UN General Assembly Resolution on the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, UN Doc. A/RES/70/1, 21 Oct. 2015, especially paras. 10 and 19, available at: http://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=A/RES/70/1&Lang=E.

37 Paris Agreement, n. 7, Art. 2.

38 Ibid., Art. 4.

39 Ibid., Preamble, para. 8.

40 Ibid., Preamble, para. 9.

41 Ibid., Preamble, para. 13.

42 Ibid., Art. 10.

43 Ibid., Art. 7.

44 Rome Declaration on World Food Security, Rome (Italy), 13–17 Nov. 1996, available at: http://www.fao.org/docrep/003/w3613e/w3613e00.HTM; Johnson, H. & Walters, R., ‘Food Security’, in M. Gill (ed.), The Handbook of Security (Springer, 2014), pp. 404–427 CrossRefGoogle Scholar, at 405.

45 ICESCR, n. 6 above, Art. 12.

46 Ibid., Arts 6, 9, 11.

47 Paris Agreement, n. 7 above, Preamble, para. 12.

48 Mary Robinson Foundation, ‘Principles of Climate Justice’, available at: http://www.mrfcj.org/principles-of-climate-justice. See also Maguire, R. & Lewis, B., ‘The Influence of Justice Theories on International Climate Policies and Measures’ (2012) 8(1) Macquarie Journal of International and Comparative Environmental Law, pp. 16–35 Google Scholar.

49 See, e.g., Brown Weiss, E., ‘Climate Change, Intergenerational Equity and International Law’ (2008) 9(3) Vermont Journal of Environmental Law, pp. 615–627 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Shue, H., ‘Changing Images of Climate Change: Human Rights and Future Generations’ (2014) 5 Journal of Human Rights and the Environment, pp. 50–64 Google Scholar; Lawrence, n. 1 above; Horn, L., ‘Climate Change Litigation Actions for Future Generations’ (2008) 25(2) Environmental and Planning Law Journal, pp. 115–135 Google Scholar.

50 See, e.g., Atapattu, n. 1 above; Humphreys, n. 1 above; Limon, n. 1 above.

51 OHCHR report, n. 1 above, Knox, n. 1 above; McInerney-Lankford, Darrow & Rajamani, n. 1 above.

52 ICCPR, n. 6 above, Art. 2.

53 Bodansky, n. 1 above, p. 522; Knox, n. 1 above, p. 487.

54 N. 6 above.

55 Human Rights Committee, General Comment 31: Nature of the General Legal Obligation on States Parties to the Covenant, UN Doc. CPR/C/21/Rev.1/add13, 20 Mar. 2004, para. 10; McCorquodale, R. & Simons, P., ‘Responsibility Beyond Borders: State Responsibility for Extraterritorial Violations by Corporations of International Human Rights’ (2007) 70(4) The Modern Law Review, pp. 598–625 CrossRefGoogle Scholar, at 602; Knox, J., ‘Climate Change and Human Rights Law’ (2009–10) 50(1) Virginia Journal of International Law, pp. 163–218 Google Scholar, at 202.

56 Legal Consequences of the Construction of a Wall in the Occupied Palestinian Territory, Advisory Opinion, ICJ Reports (2004), p. 136; Boyle, A., ‘Human Rights and the Environment: Where Next?’ (2012) 23(3) European Journal of International Law, pp. 613–642 CrossRefGoogle Scholar, at 636.

57 Francis, A., ‘Bringing Protection Home: Healing the Schism between International Obligations and National Safeguards Created by Extraterritorial Processing’ (2008) 20(2) International Journal of Refugee Law, pp. 273–313 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

58 Knox, n. 55 above, p. 203.

59 Ibid., pp. 203–4; Boyle, n. 56 above, p. 638.

60 Boyle, n. 56 above, p. 638.

61 Ibid., p. 639.

62 Ibid., p. 640. Knox has argued that states have at least a duty to respect the rights of people in other states: Knox, n. 55 above, p. 201.

63 See, e.g., Bell, D., ‘Does Anthropogenic Climate Change Violate Human Rights’ (2011) 14(2) Critical Review of International Social and Political Philosophy, pp. 99–124 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Caney, S., ‘Cosmopolitan Justice, Rights and Global Climate Change’ (2006) 19(2) Canadian Journal of Law and Jurisprudence, pp. 255–278 Google Scholar; Caney, S., ‘Human Rights, Climate Change and Discounting’ (2008) 17(4) Environmental Politics, pp. 536–555 Google Scholar; Feinberg, J., ‘The Rights of Animals and Unborn Generations’, in E. Partridge (ed.), Responsibilities to Future Generations: Environmental Ethics (Prometheus, 1981), pp. 139–150 Google Scholar; Partridge, E., ‘On the Rights of Future Generations’, in D. Scherer (ed.), Upstream/Downstream: Issues in Environmental Ethics (Temple University Press, 1990), pp. 40–66 Google Scholar; Meyer, L., ‘Past and Future: The Case for a Threshold Notion of Harm’, in L. Meyer, S. Paulson & T. Pogge (eds), Rights, Culture and the Law: Themes from the Legal and Political Philosophy of Joseph Raz (Oxford University Press, 2003), pp. 143–159 Google Scholar; Macklin, R., ‘Can Future Generations Correctly Be Said to Have Rights?’, in Partridge (ed.), ibid., pp. 151–156 Google Scholar.

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66 Atapattu, n. 1 above, p. 46.

67 Ibid.

68 Ibid.

69 Ibid.

70 Bell, n. 63 above, p. 113.

71 Ibid.

72 Stocker, T.F. et al. (eds), Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis – Working Group I Contribution to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (Cambridge University Press, 2013)Google Scholar; Field et al., n. 6 above.

73 See, e.g., Arts 18 and 19 ICCPR (n. 6 above), which permit limitations on the rights to freedom of thought, conscience and religion, and information and expression where such restrictions are necessary to protect the fundamental rights or freedoms of others.

74 See, e.g., Finnis, J., Natural Law and Natural Rights, 2nd edn (Oxford University Press, 2011)Google Scholar; Donnelly, J., ‘Human Rights as Natural Rights’ (1982) 4(3) Human Rights Quarterly, pp. 391–405 Google Scholar; Hart, H.L.A., Essays on Bentham: Studies in Jurisprudential and Political Theory (Clarendon Press, 1982)Google Scholar.

75 Raz, J., The Morality of Freedom (Clarendon Press, 1986)Google Scholar; Feinberg, n. 63 above.

76 Raz, ibid., p. 166.

77 Caney (2006), n. 63 above, pp. 255, 259; Caney (2008), n. 63 above.

78 Caney (2006), ibid., pp. 264–5.

79 Ibid., p. 268.

80 Ibid., p. 278.

81 Bell, n. 63 above, p. 107. See also Feinberg, n. 63 above, p. 148; Partridge, n. 63 above, p. 56; Meyer, n. 63 above, p. 146.

82 Macklin, n. 63 above, p. 152.

83 Gosseries, A., ‘On Future Generations’ Future Rights’ (2008) 16(4) Journal of Political Philosophy, pp. 446–474 CrossRefGoogle Scholar, at 456.

84 Parfit, D., Reasons and Persons (Clarendon Press, 1984), p. 351 Google Scholar.

85 Ibid.; Macklin, n. 63 above, p. 152.

86 Bell, n. 63 above, p. 107; see also Feinberg, n. 63 above, p. 148; Partridge, n. 63 above, p. 56; Meyer, n. 63 above, p. 146.

87 J. Feinberg, ‘The Rights of Animals and Future Generations’, paper presented at the Fourth Annual Conference on Philosophy, University of Georgia, Athens, GA (US), 18 Feb. 1971; see also Feinberg, n. 63 above; Elliot, R., ‘The Rights of Future People’ (1989) 6(2) Journal of Applied Philosophy, pp. 159–170 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

88 Elliot, ibid., p. 162; Bell, n. 63 above, p. 105; Feinberg, n. 63 above, p. 147; Partridge, n. 63 above, p. 53.

89 Brown Weiss, E., In Fairness to Future Generations: International Law, Common Patrimony, and Intergenerational Equity (Transnational, 1989)Google Scholar.

90 Brown Weiss, n. 49 above, p. 616.

91 Ibid., p. 623.

92 Ibid., p. 618.

93 Report of the UN Secretary-General, ‘Intergenerational Solidarity and the Needs of Future Generations’, UN Doc. A/68/x, 5 Aug. 2013, p. 13.

94 Ibid.

95 Shue, H., ‘Subsistence Emissions and Luxury Emissions’ (1993) 15(1) Law and Policy, pp. 39–60; Shue, n. 49 aboveCrossRefGoogle Scholar.

96 Report of Secretary-General, n. 93 above, pp. 13, 18.

97 Lawrence, n. 1 above, p. 78.

98 The precautionary principle requires that where there is a credible threat of serious or irreversible harm to the environment, scientific uncertainty should not be used as a reason for postponing action to prevent that harm: Rio Declaration, n. 35 above, Principle 15.

99 Report of Secretary-General, n. 93 above, p. 18.

100 Ibid.; Report of the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development, Rio de Janeiro (Brazil), 20–22 June 2012, UN Doc. A/CONF.216/16.

101 Fundamental Law of Hungary, 25 Apr. 2011, Art. P; N. Teschner, ‘Official Bodies that Deal with the Needs of Future Generations and Sustainable Development: Comparative Review’, The Knesset Research and Information Center, 30 Apr. 2013, p. 5, available at: https://www.knesset.gov.il/mmm/data/pdf/me03194.pdf; M. Szabó, ‘National Institutions for the Protection of the Interests of Future Generations’ (2015) 5 E-Publica: Revista Electronica de Direito Publico, pp. 16–8, available at: http://e-publica.pt/en/national-institutions.html; A. Harrington et al., ‘National Policies and International Instruments to Protect the Rights of Future Generations: A Legal Research Paper’, Report of the World Future Council and Centre for International Sustainable Development Law, available at: http://www.futurejustice.org/wp-content/uploads/2010/03/World_Future_Council_-_Representation_Future_Generations.pdf.

102 Paris Agreement, n. 7 above, Arts 13, 14.

103 ‘Our Common Future’, n. 35 above, para. 25.

104 See, e.g., the Young and Future Generations Participation Day at COP-21, 3 Dec. 2015, available at: http://unfccc.int/cooperation_support/education_outreach/overview/items/9191.php.