Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-fscjk Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-25T05:15:39.424Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Interactions between International Law and Private Fisheries Certification

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  02 August 2017

Markos Karavias*
Affiliation:
Amsterdam Center for International Law, Faculty of Law, University of Amsterdam (The Netherlands). Email: [email protected].

Abstract

The management of fisheries at the international level is no longer the exclusive preserve of states and international organizations. The proliferation of private certification initiatives – the reach of which defies territorial boundaries – has heralded an era of transnational fisheries governance. Whereas the interactions between private standards and national regulation have attracted scholarly attention, the function of international law in the context of transnational fisheries governance is largely unexplored. This article maps the interactions between international fisheries law and the most prominent among private certification standards, namely the Marine Stewardship Council Fisheries Standard and Guidance (MSC FSG). The article proposes a methodology to assess such interactions at the stage of norm development and argues that the interactions between the two regimes are multidirectional and complex. International law serves as a model for private standard setting and as a yardstick for private decision making. Conversely, the MSC FSG has acted as a model for the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Ecolabelling Guidelines. Moreover, the MSC FSG may constitute a benchmark for resolutions adopted by regional fisheries management organizations. The MSC FSG, in incorporating international fisheries law, affirms the latter’s resilience as a global point of reference for the management of fisheries globally. Yet, at the same time, by prompting states to comply with their international obligations in order to secure market access for their fishing industry, the MSC FSG may be exposing the inability of international law to generate compliance autonomously.

Type
Articles
Copyright
© Cambridge University Press 2017 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Footnotes

Research for this article was conducted within the framework of the Research Programme ‘Smart Mixes in Relation to Transboundary Environmental Harm’, funded by the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences (KNAW). The author would like to thank all members of the Programme, and especially Programme leaders André Nollkaemper and Michael Faure. All errors remain mine.

References

1 Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), The Status of World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2016: Contributing to Food Security and Nutrition for All (FAO, 2016), p. 2. This surge in fish consumption is especially notable in developing regions and low-income food-deficit countries, and it can be attributed to a variety of factors, such as improved distribution channels, growing demand linked to population growth, rising incomes, and urbanization.

2 Ibid., p. 4.

3 Ibid.

4 Ibid., p. 5.

5 For a definition of ‘bycatch’ and relevant data, see Gilman, E., Passfield, K. & Nakamura, K., Performance Assessment of Bycatch and Discards Governance by Regional Fisheries Management Organizations (International Union for Conservation of Nature, 2012), pp. 13 Google Scholar.

6 See P. Munday et al., ‘Replenishment of Fish Populations is Threatened by Ocean Acidification’ (2010) 107(29) Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, pp. 12930–34.

7 Tanaka, Y., The International Law of the Sea, 2nd edn (Cambridge University Press, 2015), p. 232 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

8 For an analysis of the implications of treating fish as a common property natural resource, see Churchill, R. & Lowe, V., The Law of the Sea, 3rd edn (Manchester University Press, 1999), pp. 281282 Google Scholar.

9 Tanaka, n. 7 above, p. 265. It is now accepted, with a measure of hindsight, that ‘fisheries conservation is probably the least successful part of the 1982 UN Convention on the Law of the Sea [UNCLOS, n. 57 below]: a triumph at best of hope over experience’: Birnie, P., Boyle, A. & Redgwell, C., International Law and the Environment, 3rd edn (Oxford University Press, 2009), p. 704 Google Scholar. In the same vein, Churchill has highlighted that UNCLOS does not ‘sufficiently [recognize] the migratory nature of fish. Very few fish stocks are confined to the [Exclusive Economic Zone] EEZ of one state’. Nonetheless, when it comes to the conservation of marine resources in the EEZ, UNCLOS imposes upon coastal states obligations that are ‘too vague’ and which allow states ‘too much discretion’: Churchill, R., ‘10 Years of the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea: Towards a Global Ocean Regime? A General Appraisal’ (2005) 48 German Yearbook of International Law, pp. 81116 Google Scholar, at 108. Following the adoption of UNCLOS, a number of problems arose, which ‘brought to the fore shortcomings in the global fisheries regime provided by the [Convention]. The result was the adoption, during the first half of the 1990s, of a number of global instruments for regulating fishing activities’: Hey, E., ‘Global Fisheries Instruments Adopted in the Post-UNCLOS III Period’, in E. Hey (ed.), Developments in International Fisheries Law (Kluwer Law International, 1999), pp. 310, at 3Google Scholar.

10 For a comprehensive overview of market-based seafood sustainability initiatives, see Jacquet, J. et al., ‘Conserving Wild Fish in a Sea of Market-Based Efforts’ (2009) 44(1) Oryx – The Journal of International Conservation, pp. 4556 Google Scholar.

11 On these distinctions in the field of environmental protection, see Heyvaert, V. & Etty, T.F.M., ‘Introducing Transnational Environmental Law’ (2012) 1(1) Transnational Environmental Law, pp. 111 CrossRefGoogle Scholar, at 2–7.

12 On the emergence of global fisheries governance, see Schechter, M.G. & Leonard, N.J., ‘Global Fisheries Governance’, in M.G. Schechter, N.J. Leonard & W.W. Taylor (eds), International Governance of Fisheries Ecosystems: Learning from the Past, Finding Solutions for the Future (American Fisheries Society, 2008), pp. 333 Google Scholar.

13 Kalfagianni, A. & Pattberg, P., ‘Exploring the Output Legitimacy of Transnational Fisheries Governance’ (2014) 11(3) Globalizations, pp. 385400 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

14 See Gulbrandsen, L., Transnational Environmental Governance: The Emergence and Effects of the Certification of Forests and Fisheries (Edward Elgar, 2010), pp. 112151 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Auld, G., Constructing Private Governance: The Rise and Evolution of Forest, Coffee, and Fisheries Certification (Yale University Press, 2014), pp. 169218 Google Scholar, as well as the detailed case studies presented in Agnew, D., ‘Case Study 1: Toothfish – An MSC-Certified Fishery’, in T. Ward & B. Phillips (eds), Seafood Ecolabelling: Principles and Practice (Wiley-Blackwell, 2008), pp. 247258 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; B. Phillips, L. Bourillón & M. Ramade, ‘Case Study 2: The Baja California, Mexico, Lobster Fishery’ in Ward & Phillips, ibid., pp. 259–68; J. Gilmore, ‘Case Study 3: MSC Certification of the Alaska Pollock Fishery’, in Ward & Phillips, ibid., pp. 269–86; Gale, F. & Haward, M., Global Commodity Governance: State Responses to Sustainable Forest and Fisheries Certification (Palgrave Macmillan, 2011), pp. 161172, 192–206, 223–32CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

15 For a taxonomy and analysis of the characteristics of the policy instruments used in respect of environmental protection, see Sand, P.H., ‘Sticks, Carrots, and Games’, in M. Bothe & P.H. Sand (eds), Environmental Policy: From Regulation to Economic Instruments (Martinus Nijhoff, 2003), pp. 336 Google Scholar; Stewart, R., ‘Instrument Choice’, in D. Bodansky, J. Brunnée & E. Hey (eds), The Oxford Handbook of International Environmental Law (Oxford University Press, 2007), pp. 147181 Google Scholar; Bodansky, D., The Art and Craft of International Law (Harvard University Press, 2010), pp. 7184 Google Scholar; Sands, P. & Peel, J., Principles of International Environmental Law, 3rd edn (Cambridge University Press, 2012), pp. 121131 Google Scholar.

16 On the distinction between regulatory and non-regulatory private standards, see J. Morrison & N. Roht-Arriaza, ‘Private and Quasi-Private Standard Setting’, in Bodansky, Brunnée & Hey, ibid., pp. 498–527, at 498–9.

17 On the correlation between dissatisfaction with command-and-control approaches and the turn to supplementary market-based mechanisms, see Beyerlin, U. & Marauhn, T., International Environmental Law (Hart, 2011), p. 303 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

18 See Cashore, B. et al., ‘Can Non-State Governance “Ratchet Up” Global Environmental Standards? Lessons from the Forest Sector’ (2007) 16(2) Review of European Community and International Environmental Law, pp. 158172 CrossRefGoogle Scholar, at 161–2. See also Bernstein, S. & Cashore, B., ‘Nonstate Global Governance: Is Forest Certification a Legitimate Alternative to a Global Forest Convention?’, in J. Kirton & M. Trebilcock (eds), Hard Choices, Soft Law (Ashgate, 2004), pp. 3363 Google Scholar, at 36.

19 Benvenisti, E., The Law of Global Governance (Hague Academy of International Law, 2014), p. 36 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

20 On the concept of new governance, Abbott, K.W. & Snidal, D., ‘Strengthening International Regulation Through Transnational New Governance: Overcoming the Orchestration Deficit’ (2009) 42 Vanderbilt Journal of Transnational Law, pp. 501578 Google Scholar, at 503–12; Scott, J. & Trubek, D., ‘Mind the Gap: Law and New Approaches to Governance in the European Union’ (2002) 8(1) European Law Journal, pp. 118 Google Scholar, at 5–6.

21 Gulbrandsen, L., ‘The Emergence and Effectiveness of the Marine Stewardship Council’ (2009) 33(4) Marine Policy, pp. 654660 CrossRefGoogle Scholar, at 654.

22 T. Ward & B. Phillips, ‘Ecolabelling of Seafood: Basic Concepts’, in Ward & Phillips (eds), n. 14 above, pp. 1–37, at 16.

23 The fishery or Unit of Assessment (UoA) is defined as a target species captured using a specific fishing method in a geographical area.

24 The supply chain certification, which follows up on the fishery certification, is governed by the ‘MSC Chain of Custody Standard: Default Version’, Version 4.0, 20 Feb. 2015, available at: https://www.msc.org/documents/scheme-documents/msc-standards/msc-default-coc-standard-v4.

26 Ibid., p. 6.

27 Sutton, M., ‘Harnessing Market Forces and Consumer Power in Favour of Sustainable Fisheries’, in T. Pitcher, P. Hart & D. Pauly (eds), Reinventing Fisheries Management (Springer, 1998), pp. 125136 CrossRefGoogle Scholar, at 133.

28 MSC, ‘Harnessing Market Forces for Positive Environmental Change: The MSC Theory of Change’, p. 1, available at: https://www.msc.org/documents/msc-brochures/msc-theory-of-change. See Constance, D. & Bonnano, A., ‘Regulating the Global Fisheries: The World Wide Fund, Unilever, and the Marine Stewardship Council’ (2000) 17(2) Agriculture and Human Values, pp. 125139 CrossRefGoogle Scholar, at 130.

29 MSC, ibid.

30 C. Roheim, ‘The Economics of Ecolabelling’ in Ward & Phillips (eds), n. 14 above, pp. 38–57, at 39.

31 See Martin, W., ‘Marine Stewardship Council: A Case Study in Private Environmental Standard-Setting’ (2014) 44(2) Environmental Law Reporter News & Analysis, pp. 1009710101 Google Scholar, at 10098.

32 On the MSC specifically, see Gutiérrez, N.L. et al., ‘Eco-Label Conveys Reliable Information on Fish Stock Health to Seafood Consumers’ (2012) 7(8) PLoS ONE, e43765 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed.

33 C. Roheim & J. Sutinen, ‘Trade and Marketplace Measures to Promote Sustainable Fishing Practices’, International Centre for Trade and Sustainable Development, Issue Paper No. 3, May 2006, p. 18, available at: http://www.vliz.be/imisdocs/publications/113442.pdf.

34 MSC, n. 28 above.

36 Peters, A., Koechlin, L. & Fenner Zinkernagel, G., ‘Non-State Actors as Standard Setters: Framing the Issue in an Interdisciplinary Fashion’, in A. Peters et al. (eds), Non-State Actors as Standard Setters (Cambridge University Press, 2009), pp. 132 CrossRefGoogle Scholar, at 4, note that ‘[s]tandard setting by non-state actors has so far not been explicitly treated in international legal scholarship’.

37 Marrakesh (Morocco), 15 Apr. 1994, in force 1 Jan. 1995, available at: https://www.wto.org/english/docs_e/legal_e/17-tbt_e.htm.

38 Ibid.

39 See Wouters, J. & Geraets, D., ‘Private Food Standards and the World Trade Organization: Some Legal Considerations’ (2012) 11(3) World Trade Review, pp. 479489 CrossRefGoogle Scholar, at 486.

40 For a forceful criticism of this view, see Affolder, N., ‘The Market for Treaties’ (2010) 11(1) Chicago Journal of International Law, pp. 159196 Google Scholar.

41 Abbott, Cf. K.W. & Snidal, D., ‘Law, Legalization, and Politics: An Agenda for the Next Generation of IR/IL Scholars’, in J.L. Dunoff & M.A. Pollack (eds), Interdisciplinary Perspectives on International Law and International Relations (Cambridge University Press, 2013), pp. 3356 Google Scholar, at 48–9.

42 See van Panhuys, H.F., Relations and Interactions between International and National Law (Sijthoff, 1964)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Erades, L., Interactions between International and Municipal Law (T.M.C. Asser Press, 1993)Google Scholar.

43 Arangio-Ruiz, G., ‘International Law and Inter-Individual Law’, in J. Nijman & A. Nollkaemper (eds), New Perspectives on the Divide between National and International Law ( Oxford University Press, 2009), pp. 1551 Google Scholar, at 16.

44 Ibid.

45 Ress, G., ‘Wechselwirkungen zwischen Völkerrecht und Verfassung bei der Auslegung völkerrechtlicher Verträge’, in G. Ress & C. Schreuer (eds), Wechselwirkungen zwischen Völkerrecht und Verfassung bei der Auslegung völkerrechtlicher Verträge (Mueller, 1981), pp. 760 Google Scholar, at 16.

46 Eberlein, B. et al., ‘Transnational Business Governance Interactions: Conceptualization and Framework for Analysis’ (2014) 8(1) Regulation and Governance, pp. 121 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

47 Ibid., p. 2.

48 Wood, S. et al., ‘The Interactive Dynamics of Transnational Business Governance: A Challenge for Transnational Legal Theory (2015) 6(2) Transnational Legal Theory, pp. 333369 CrossRefGoogle Scholar, at 339 (emphasis in original).

49 Ibid.

50 Ibid., p. 340.

51 Secondary law of international organizations comprises the acts produced by those organizations. Such acts derive their legal effect from the founding treaty of the international organization in question, which allocates competence to the organization to pass said legal acts: see Benzing, M., ‘International Organizations or Institutions, Secondary Law’, in R. Wolfrum (ed.), The Max Planck Encyclopedia of International Law (Oxford University Press, 2014), available at: http://opil.ouplaw.com/home/EPIL Google Scholar.

52 FAO Doc. C95/20 (Rev.1), 29 Sept. 1995, available at: http://www.fao.org/docrep/005/v9878e/v9878e00.htm.

53 Sutton, M., ‘The Marine Stewardship Council: New Hope for Marine Fisheries’ (1996) 19(3) NAGA: The ICLARM Quarterly, pp. 1012 Google Scholar, at 12.

55 CCRF, n. 52 above, Art. 1.2.

56 Ibid., Art. 2(c) & (j).

57 Montego Bay (Jamaica), 10 Dec. 1982, in force 16 Nov. 1994, available at: http://www.un.org/depts/los/convention_agreements/texts/unclos/closindx.htm.

58 New York, NY (United States), 4 Aug. 1995, in force 11 Dec. 2001, available at: http://www.un.org/depts/los/convention_agreements/convention_overview_fish_stocks.htm.

59 CCRF, n. 52 above, Art. 1.1.

60 Friedrich, J., International Environmental ‘Soft Law’ (Springer, 2013), pp. 345346 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Moore, G., ‘The Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries’, in Hey (ed.), n. 9 above, pp. 85105 Google Scholar, at 104–5; Edeson, W., ‘Towards Long-Term Sustainable Use: Some Recent Developments in the Legal Regime of Fisheries’, in A. Boyle & D. Freestone (eds), International Law and Sustainable Development (Oxford University Press, 1999), pp. 165203 Google Scholar, at 200.

61 MSC FSG, n. 25 above, p. 6.

62 Ibid., p. 66.

63 Ibid., p. 67.

64 Ibid., p. 68.

65 Ibid., p. 69

66 Ibid., p. 14. In this respect, see Agnew, D.J. et al., ‘The MSC Experience: Developing an Operational Certification Standard and a Market Incentive to Improve Fishery Sustainability’ (2013) 71(2) ICES Journal of Marine Science, pp. 216225 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

67 Birnie, Boyle & Redgwell, n. 9 above, pp. 590–1.

68 Ibid.

69 OECD, Environmental Requirements and Market Access (OECD, 2006), p. 254 Google Scholar.

70 The reactions of states to the MSC FSG are documented in Gulbrandsen, n. 21 above, p. 657, R. Willmann, K. Cochrane & W. Emerson, ‘FAO Guidelines for Ecolabelling in Wild-Capture Fisheries’, in Ward & Phillips (eds), n. 14 above, pp. 58–80, at 59.

71 FAO Guidelines for the Ecolabelling of Fish and Fishery Products from Marine Capture Fisheries, 2005, revised in 2009, available at: http://www.fao.org/docrep/013/i1948e/i1948e08.pdf.

72 Gulbrandsen, n. 21 above, p. 657.

73 Willmann, Cochrane & Emerson, n. 70 above, p. 79; Martin, n. 31 above, p. 10098.

74 Gulbrandsen, L., ‘Dynamic Governance Interactions: Evolutionary Effects of State Responses to Non-State Certification Programs’ (2014) 8(1) Regulation & Governance, pp. 7492 CrossRefGoogle Scholar, at 84–6.

75 FAO Guidelines, n. 71 above, Guideline 2.1.

76 Ibid., Guideline 42 (emphasis added).

77 Ibid., Guidelines 28–29.

78 Ibid., Guideline 30.

79 Ibid., Guideline 31.

80 Santacoloma, P., ‘Nexus between Public and Private Food Standards: Main Issues and Perspectives’, in A. Meybeck & S. Redfern (eds), Voluntary Standards for Sustainable Food Systems (FAO, 2014), pp. 1123 Google Scholar, at 20.

82 Intertek/Moody International, ‘Pole and Line Skipjack Fishery in the Maldives’, Public Certification Report, Version 5, Nov. 2012, p. 119, available at: https://fisheries.msc.org/en/fisheries/maldives-pole-line-tuna/@@assessments.

83 Ibid.

84 Ibid.

85 Ibid., p. 120.

86 Ibid., p. 119 (emphasis added).

87 Art. V 2(c) of the Agreement for the Establishment of the Indian Ocean Tuna Commission, Rome (Italy), 25 Nov. 1993, in force 27 Mar. 1996, available at: ftp://ftp.fao.org/Fi/DOCUMENT/iotc/Basic/IOTCA_E.pdf.

88 See M.S. Adam, R. Sharma & N. Bentley, ‘Progress and Arrangements for Management Strategy Evaluation of Indian Ocean Skipjack Tuna’, paper submitted to the 15th Working Party of Tropical Tuna, 23–28 Oct. 2013, IOTC-2013-WPTT15-33.

89 Report of the 18th Session of the IOTC Scientific Committee, Doc. IOTC–2015–SC18–R[E] (2015), p. 28.

90 Cf. the default reference points, MSC FSG, n. 25 above, pp. 153–6.

91 Brownlie, I., ‘Legal Effects of Codes of Conduct for MNEs’, in N. Horn (ed.), Legal Problems of Codes of Conduct for Multinational Enterprises (Kluwer, 1980), pp. 3943 Google Scholar, at 42.

92 See Schachter, O., ‘The Decline of the Nation State and its Implications for International Law’ (1997) 36(7) Columbia Journal of Transnational Law, pp. 723 Google Scholar, at 8–12; more generally, Strange, S., The Retreat of the State (Cambridge University Press, 1996)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

93 Matthews, J., ‘Power Shift’ (1997) 76(1) Foreign Affairs, pp. 5066 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

94 According to Klabbers & Piiparinen, there is a more general paradox at play here. As they suggest, ‘it is uncontested that law has come to be ever more fine-grained and pervasive in everyday life … with little being left unregulated … Yet, simultaneously, other normative orders have gained in practical prominence’: Klabbers, J. & Piiparinen, T., ‘Normative Pluralism: An Exploration’, in J. Klabbers & T. Piiparinen (eds), Normative Pluralism and International Law: Exploring Global Governance (Cambridge University Press, 2013), pp. 1334 CrossRefGoogle Scholar, at 26.

95 See Harrison, J., Making the Law of the Sea: A Study in the Development of International Law (Cambridge University Press, 2011), pp. 200237 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

96 Lowe, V., ‘The Politics of Law-Making: Are the Method and Character of Norm Creation Changing?’, in M. Byers (ed.), The Role of Law in International Politics (Oxford University Press, 2001), pp. 207226 CrossRefGoogle Scholar, at 225.

97 Howse, R. & Teitel, R., ‘Beyond Compliance: Rethinking Why International Law Really Matters’ (2010) 1(2) Global Policy, pp. 127136 CrossRefGoogle Scholar, at 131.

98 Brownlie, I., ‘The Reality and Efficacy of International Law’ (1981) 52(1) British Yearbook of International Law, pp. 18 CrossRefGoogle Scholar, at 1–2.

99 See Bartley, T., ‘Transnational Governance as the Layering of Rules’ (2011) 12(2) Theoretical Inquiries in Law, pp. 517542 CrossRefGoogle Scholar, at 518.

100 Bethlehem, in a similar vein, has called for a lex congregato, or a law of society structured as follows: ‘[F]irst, an instrument of traditional inter-state law that would act as a platform on which would stand a second tier set of protocols and principles addressing the application and mutual recognition of rules and standards relevant to particular conduct; thirdly, a further tier of industry-driven and derived minimum standards of conduct’: Bethlehem, D., ‘The End of Geography: The Changing Nature of the International System and the Challenge to International Law’ (2014) 25(1) European Journal of International Law, pp. 924 CrossRefGoogle Scholar, at 24.

101 Tzankova, Z., ‘Interactions between Private and Public Resource Governance: Key Insights from the Fisheries Case’ (2015) 6(1) William & Mary Policy Review, pp. 125 Google Scholar, at 5–6; Agnew et al., n. 66 above, p. 216.

102 See Gulbrandsen, n. 74 above, pp. 86–7.

103 Friedrich, n. 60 above, p. 359.

104 Meidinger, E., ‘Competitive Supragovernmental Regulation: How Could It Be Democratic?’ (2008) 8(2) Chicago Journal of International Law, pp. 513534 Google Scholar, at 530.

105 Gulbrandsen (n. 74 above, p. 87) speaks of a ‘mutual reinforcement of legitimacy’.

106 The reasons cited for this mixed picture often relate to the high costs of certification, lack of technical capacity, and the degree of organization, as well as the fact that the MSC process does not square with the complexity of small-scale fishing in the developing South: Ponte, S., ‘The Marine Stewardship Council (MSC) and the Making of a Market for “Sustainable Fish”’ (2012) 12(2–3) Journal of Agrarian Change, pp. 300315 CrossRefGoogle Scholar, at 310.

107 Kaiser, M. & Edward-Jones, G., ‘The Role of Ecolabeling in Fisheries Management and Conservation’ (2006) 20(2) Conservation Biology, pp. 392398 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed.

108 Kalfagianni and Pattberg speak of the ‘regulatory effects’ of the MSC: Kalfagianni, A. & Pattberg, P., ‘Global Fisheries Governance beyond the State: Unraveling the Effectiveness of the Marine Stewardship Council’ (2013) 3(2) Journal of Environmental Studies and Sciences, pp. 184193 CrossRefGoogle Scholar, at 190–1.

109 Pauwelyn, J., Wessel, R. & Wouters, J., ‘When Structures Become Shackles: Stagnation and Dynamics in International Lawmaking’ (2014) 25(3) European Journal of International Law, pp. 733763 CrossRefGoogle Scholar, at 762.