Being born or living in urban areas is associated with high rates of schizophrenia. However, few studies have compared the incidence in urban/rural areas using the same methodology.

To compare service-based incidence rates for schizophrenia in rural Dumfries and Galloway in south-west Scotland with urban Camberwell in south-east London.

Using Research Diagnostic Criteria diagnoses from the OPCRIT computer algorithm, we compared the incidence of schizophrenia over 12 years (1979–1984 and 1992–1997) using indirect standardisation techniques and Poisson regression modelling.

The incidence was 61% higher in urban Camberwell than in rural Dumfries and Galloway (standardised incidence ratio (SIR)= 1.61; 95% Cl=1.42–1.81). There was no difference in incidence when we compared the White population in Camberwell with Dumfries and Galloway (SIR=1.12; 95% CI=0.86–1.43).

The incidence of schizophrenia in urban Camberwell was higher than that in rural Dumfries and Galloway; the high incidence of non-Whites in Camberwell largely explains the urban/rural difference.

Although a family history of schizophrenia is the strongest individual risk factor for schizophrenia, environmental factors related to urbanicity may contribute to a substantial proportion of the population occurrence of the disease.

This study replicates previous findings in four mutually exclusive Danish study populations, including out-patient information, ICD–10 diagnoses of schizophrenia, and a broader adjustment for mental illness in family members.

We established a population-based cohort of 2.66 million Danish people using data from the Civil Registration System linked with the Psychiatric Case Register.

Overall, 10 264 persons developed schizophrenia during the 50.7 million person-years of follow-up. The risk of schizophrenia was increased by urbanicity of place of birth and by family history of schizophrenia or other mental disorders.

Urban–rural differences of schizophrenia risk were replicated and could not be associated with the potential sources of bias we assessed. Environmental factors underlying the effect of place of birth are major determinants of schizophrenia occurrence at the population level, although the effect of family history is the strongest at the individual level.

In previous research, lapses in dosing of paroxetine or sertraline were associated with significantly more discontinuation symptoms and deterioration of depressive symptomatology compared with fluoxetine.

To evaluate dosing lapses in patients chronically treated with selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) in uncontrolled circumstances.

In a prospective observational study we evaluated compliance data in chronic users of SSRIs using electronic drug exposure monitors.

During a 3-month follow-up we found that 50/69 (72.5%) patients missed at least one dosing day and 20/69 (29.0%) missed two or more consecutive days.

About 30% of patients treated with short-acting SSRIs had dosing lapses of 2 or more days, which, as described in prior studies, is long enough to result in clinically relevant deterioration of mental status.

Better indicators are needed for identifying children with early signs of developmental psychopathology.

To identify measures of autonomic nervous system reactivity that discriminate children with internalising and externalising behavioural symptoms.

A cross-sectional study of 122 children aged 6–7 years examined sympathetic and parasympathetic reactivity to standardised field-laboratory stressors as predictors of parent— and teacher-reported mental health symptoms.

Measures of autonomic reactivity discriminated between children with internalising behaviour problems, externalising behaviour problems and neither. Internalisers showed high reactivity relative to low-symptom children, principally in the parasympathetic branch, while externalisers showed low reactivity, in both autonomic branches.

School-age children with mental health symptoms showed a pattern of autonomic dimorphism in their reactivity to standardised challenges. This observation may be of use in early identification of children with presyndromal psychopathology.

The ‘toxicity’ model of duration of untreated psychosis (DUP) suggests that longer DUP will be associated with poorer performance on cognitive tests in first-episode patients.

To test this hypothesis on a sample of 113 patients in a community-based early intervention programme for psychosis.

Information was collected concerning a number of possible predictors of cognitive functioning including DUP. These were examined for their relation to performance on an extensive battery of cognitive tests administered shortly after the patients' admission to the programme.

Although several variables such as gender, premorbid adjustment, education and handedness predicted cognitive functioning, no relation was found between DUP and performance on any component of the test battery.

Findings do not provide support for a toxic effect of DUP on cognitive functioning. Other mechanisms through which DUP might affect outcome such as psychological engulfment, social support and adherence to medication are discussed.

Schizophrenia implies severe social impairments. Since the treatment of patients with schizophrenia shifted from long-term hospital admissions to community services, research on social functioning has become increasingly important.

Follow-up assessment of social functioning in young patients with schizophrenia during a 5-year period after intervention.

During intervention, families were randomised into two conditions: standard intervention and standard plus family intervention.

Although no differential treatment effect with regard to the course of the illness was found, patients from the standard plus family intervention condition stayed for fewer months in institutions for psychiatric patients than patients from the standard intervention condition.

Family intervention has helped parents to support their children, thereby diminishing institutional care.

Little is known about the influence on child mental health symptoms of the timing of initial exposure to maternal major depression or whether the timing is associated with ‘pure’ or co-occurring internalising and externalising symptoms.

To address these issues, while also taking account of child gender and family socio-economic status.

In a prospective community-based study, 421 kindergarten teachers rated children's symptoms. Previous assessments of maternal major depression indicated whether children were first exposed during infancy, in the toddler/pre-school period, or never.

Exposure during infancy was associated with high internalising symptoms, especially when co-occurring with high externalising symptoms. Initial exposure in the toddler/pre-school years increased the risk of ‘pure’ externalising symptoms among girls.

The association of child mental health symptoms with the timing of initial exposure to maternal depression highlights the need for effective prevention and intervention strategies addressed to the developmental issues of each period.

The characteristics of adrenal hormone secretion change markedly during infancy. Disturbances in basal levels may precipitate psychological dysfunction and are associated with psychopathology in young people.

To relate three aspects of behavioural endocrinology: developmental changes in cortisol and dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), the role of these hormones in the psychopathology of young people, and the action of these steroids in the brain.

A selective review from the human developmental, psychiatric and neurosciences literature.

There are developmentally mediated changes in brain sensitivity following excess exposure to cortisol. This may result in impairments of mental and behavioural function. DHEA and gonadal steroids may modulate the actions of cortisol.

Steroid hormones contribute to shaping behavioural function during early development and act as risk factors for psychopathology.

Increased risk of affective disorder in learning disability has been reported, although the extent to which this is due to adverse social and material circumstances is uncertain and there have been potential limitations in the measurement of affective disorder.

To determine risk of affective disorder in those classified with mild learning disability in the British 1946 birth cohort and to investigate whether this risk was accounted for by disadvantage in childhood and adulthood.

Learning disability was defined as the equivalent of an IQ ≤ 69 at age 15 years. The Present State Examination at age 36 years and the Psychiatric Symptom Frequency Scale at age 43 years provided psychiatric outcome measures.

Learning disability was associated with a fourfold increase in risk of affective disorder, not accounted for by social and material disadvantage or by medical disorder.

Learning disability is strongly associated with risk of affective disorder, persisting well into midlife.

Little research has been done on the uniqueness of risk profiles for depression and anxiety in late life.

Delineating risk factors for the decline of mental health in older persons, comparing risk profiles for developing symptoms of pure depression, pure anxiety and both anxiety and depression in a prospective design.

Self-Report data on depression and anxiety were collected from community-dwelling older respondents (⩾55 years) on two occasions, 3 years apart. Data from emotionally healthy respondents (n=1810) were used to investigate the effects of long-standing vulnerability factors and stressful life events.

After 3 years 9% of the subjects had scored beyond the thresholds for symptoms. Vulnerability for depression and anxiety was quite similar, but life events differed: onset of depression was predicted by death of a partner or other relatives; onset of anxiety was best predicted by having a partner who developed a major illness. No support for moderator effects between vulnerability factors and stress was found; the effects were purely additive.

Depression and anxiety have many risk factors in common, but specific risk factors also were found, especially in subjects developing both depression and anxiety.

Certain styles of parental controlling behaviour influence child development. Work with mothers with eating disorders suggests that they may be particularly controlling of their infants.

To examine the nature and specificity of maternal controlling behaviour in mothers with eating disorders compared with mothers who had experienced postnatal depression and a healthy comparison group.

Mothers with eating disorders (n=34), postnatal depression (n=39) and a healthy comparison group (n=61) and their 12-month-old infants were observed during play and mealtimes, and blind ratings made of verbal and non-verbal control exerted by the mother.

Mothers in the eating disorder group used more verbal control, especially strong control. There were no differences between the groups on gentle verbal control and physical contact. Maternal dietary restraint was the one feature of eating disorder psychopathology associated with the use of verbal control. Marital criticism was also associated with the extent of verbal controlling behaviour.

Aspects of maternal control of infants were found to be specific to maternal eating disorder psychopathology.

There is a well-recognised relationship between substance use disorders and other psychiatric disorders. This relationship has been well documented in a range of population-based studies.

This study aims to report on consumption patterns of and dependence on nicotine, alcohol and non-prescribed drugs and to report on the levels of psychiatric morbidity in these groups.

A national household study of psychiatric morbidity was conducted in England and Wales. Psychiatric assessment was based on the Clinical Interview Schedule – Revised (CIS–R). Measures of nicotine, alcohol and drug use and dependence were obtained. This paper compares the levels of psychiatric morbidity in the non-dependent and the nicotine-, alcohol— and drug-dependent cases.

Twelve per cent of the non-dependent population were assessed as having any psychiatric disorder compared with 22% of the nicotine-dependent, 30% of the alcohol-dependent and 45% of the drug-dependent population.

There is a clear relationship between dependence on nicotine, alcohol and drugs and other psychiatric morbidity.

The association between social inequality at birth and subsequent risk of schizophrenia is uncertain.

To investigate the relationship between adult-onset schizophrenia and two indicators of social inequality at birth: social class and area of residence.

A matched case–control design was used with data from birth certificates of first-episode cases and age— and gender-matched controls.

Risk increased with increasing levels of deprivation at birth. Subjects whose fathers were social class IV–V or who were born in deprived areas were at increased risk of schizophrenia (odds ratio=2.1; 95% Cl=0.8–5.5). Risk was greater in those with both of these indicators (odds ratio=8.1; 95% CI=2.7–23.9). There was some evidence that associations were stronger in older subjects. Exclusion of African–Caribbeans or cases with positive family history somewhat attenuated the association.

Indicators of social inequality at birth are associated with increased risk of adult-onset schizophrenia, suggesting that environmental factors are important determinants of schizophrenic disorders.

Abnormal regulation of the adipocyte-derived hormone leptin could play a role in body weight gain induced by antipsychotics.

To study the effects of long-term antipsychotic treatment on leptin levels in patients with schizophrenia.

Serum leptin levels were determined in 59 out-patients with chronic schizophrenia and in the same number of healthy subjects controlled by gender, age and body mass index.

Leptin levels did not differ between patients and controls. Leptin levels in patients with schizophrenia correlated with weight gain, even after controlling for current weight, but did not show any association with clinical variables. Antipsychotic class tended to exert different effects over leptin levels (among atypicals, olanzapine induced a greater increase).

Elevation of leptin levels induced by chronic antipsychotic treatment can be attributed to weight gain, but other mechanisms could be involved.

The prevalence of dementia diagnosis according to ICD–10 and DSM–III–R in population surveys remains poorly understood.

To report and compare prevalence rates according to DSM–III–R and ICD–10.

A population-based sample (n=1692, age 75+ years) was investigated by a Structured Interview for Diagnosis of Dementia of Alzheimer Type, Multiinfarct Dementia and Dementia of other Aetiology according to DSM–III–R and ICD–10 (SIDAM).

Whereas 17.4% (95% CI=15.9–19.5) of individuals aged 75+ years suffer from dementia according to DSM–III–R, only 12.4% (95% CI=10.6–14.2) are diagnosed as having dementia according to ICD–10. The results revealed lower ICD–10 rates in all investigated age groups. The largest differences appear in the oldest of the elderly.

The ICD–10 sets a higher threshold for dementia diagnosis. Larger differences in the eldest age groups might reflect difficulties in applying case definitions, especially in those beyond 90 years old.

Little is known about the consequences of road traffic accidents.

To determine psychological and social outcome at 3 months and I year following a road traffic accident.

A cohort study of a 1-year sample of consecutive attenders (n=1148) aged 17–69 years at the accident and emergency department of a teaching district general hospital (excluding major head injury). Data were extracted from medical notes and from self-report at baseline, 3 months and 1 year.

Most (61%) injuries were physically minor. At 1 year 45% reported major physical problems and 32% reported psychiatric consequences. Non-injury variables were the principal predictors of outcome.

Outcome across a range of variables is considerably worse than would be expected from the nature of the physical injuries. There is a need for changes in clinical care and socio-legal policy to prevent, identify and treat distressing and disabling chronic problems.

The impact of different case definitions on incidence rates remains unclear.

To compare incidence rates of dementia according to DSM–III–Rand ICD–10.

A two-wave community study was conducted (n=1692, age 75+ years follow-up period 1.6 years). Cognitive function was assessed by the Structured Interview for Diagnosis of Dementia of Alzheimer Type, Multiinfarct Dementia and Dementia of other Aetiology according to ICD–10 and DSM–III–R (SIDAM).

The annual incidence rate for dementia by applying different case definitions was found to be quite similar (DSM–III–R: 47.4 (95% Cl=36.1–61.2) per 1000 person-years; ICD–10: 45.8 (95% Cl= 35.0–59.0) per 1000 person-years). Age-specific incidence rates increase steeply with age.

The impact of different case definitions on incidence rates of dementia appears limited if case definitions and case-finding procedures at baseline and follow-up are applied consistently.

Since the late 1970s, the psychiatric service system in Norway has been changed gradually according to the principles of deinstitutionalisation.

To document the mortality of psychiatric patients in a deinstitutionalised service system.

The case register of a psychiatric hospital covering the period 1980–1992 was linked to the Central Register of Deaths. Age-adjusted death rates and standardised mortality ratios (SMRs) were computed.

Patients with organic psychiatric disorders had significantly higher mortality regardless of cause of death. SMRs ranged from 0.9 for death by cancer in women to 36.3 for suicide in men. For unnatural death, SMRs were highest in the first year after discharge. Compared to the periods 1950–1962 and 1963–1974, there has been an increase in SMRs for cardiovascular death and suicide in both genders.

Deinstitutionalisation seems to have had as its cost a relative rise both in cardiovascular death and unnatural deaths for both genders, but most pronounced in men.

The pharmacological treatment of depression in nursing women requires information on the magnitude of medication exposure to the infant that may occur through breast milk.

To examine serum concentrations of antidepressants in infants exposed to these medications through breast-feeding.

Maternal and infant serum concentrations of sertraline, paroxetine and fluvoxamine were determined with high-performance liquid chromatography (limit of detections=1 ng/ml).

No detectable medication was present in any infant exposed to paroxetine (n=16) or fluvoxamine (n=4). Among infants exposed to sertraline (n=30), detectable medication was present in 24% of serum samples. A significant negative correlation was found between infant age and infant serum concentration. Sertraline was significantly more likely to be detected in an infant if the mother's daily dose was 100 mg or higher. No adverse sequelae occurred in any infant.

This study shows that paroxetine, fluvoxamine and sertraline produce minimal exposure to infants when taken by nursing mothers.

The number of elderly prisoners has increased significantly in Western countries over the past decade. Little is known about the psychiatric morbidity of this population.

To determine the prevalence of psychiatric morbidity in elderly sentenced prisoners.

A stratified sample of 203 male sentenced prisoners aged over 59 years, from 15 prisons in England and Wales, representing one in five men in this age group, was interviewed using semi-structured standardised instruments for psychiatric illness and personality disorder.

More than half of the elderly prisoners had a psychiatric diagnosis. The most common diagnoses were personality disorder and depressive illness.

The prevalence of depressive illness was five times greater than that found in other studies of younger adult prisoners and elderly people in the community. Underdetected, undertreated depressive illness in elderly prisoners is an increasing public health problem.