Published online by Cambridge University Press: 03 August 2017
In recent years, observations of stars across the whole electromagnetic spectrum have yielded a wealth of information on their atmospheres and borne out new insights on their internal structures. Indirect evidences for chromospheres, coronae and winds were discovered in stars other than the Sun. For instance, ultra-violet and optical emission lines from collisionally excited atoms are evidences for chromospheric activity with temperatures between 104 and 2 × 105 K. Soft X-ray emission with thermal spectrum is evidence for hot coronae with temperatures between 106 and 3 × 107 K. The spindown of stars with age is best interprated by loss of mass and of angular momentum via magneticly coupled stellar winds originating in hot stellar coronae.