Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-7cvxr Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-26T03:24:00.442Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Cometary Nuclei

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  19 July 2016

Hans Rickman*
Affiliation:
Astronomiska observatoriet, Box 515, S-75120 Uppsala, Sweden E-mail [email protected]

Abstract

Core share and HTML view are not available for this content. However, as you have access to this content, a full PDF is available via the ‘Save PDF’ action button.

After a brief summary of current concepts on cometary nuclei, resulting from recent advances in observational techniques and laboratory experiments on cometary analogue materials, some of the outstanding problems facing theoretical modelling and interpretations of the new data is described. Emphasis is placed on the outgassing of species more volatile than water over the history of cometary nuclei, the structure of the nuclei in terms of porosity and tensile strength on a variety of different scales, and the volumetric importance and distribution of the refractory “dust” component. Near-surface interactions of dust grains and outflowing gas may be associated with the formation of large dust aggregates and mantling of the nuclei.

Type
Physical Observations and Modeling
Copyright
Copyright © Kluwer 1994 

References

A'Hearn, M.F., Hoban, S., Birch, P.V., Bowers, C., Martin, R. and Klinglesmith, D.A. III: 1986, “Cyanogen jets in comet. Halley”. Nature, 324, 649651.Google Scholar
Baas, F., Geballe, T.R. and Walther, D.M.: 1986, “Spectroscopy of the 3.4 micron emission feature in comet Halley”. Astrophys. J. Lett., 311, L97L101.Google Scholar
Banaszkiewicz, M. and Szutowicz, S.: 1990, “Thermal Modelling of Precessing Cometary Nuclei”. In Asteroids, Comets, Meteors III (Lagerkvist, C.-I., Rickman, H., Lindblad, B.A., Lindgren, M., Eds.), 239242, Uppsala Univ. Reprocentralen.Google Scholar
Bar-Nun, A., Dror, J., Kochavi, E. and Laufer, D.: 1987, “Amorphous water ice and its ability to trap gases”. Phys. Rev., B 35, 24272435.Google Scholar
Belton, M.J.S.: 1991, “Characterization of the Rotation of Cometary Nuclei”. In Comets in the Post-Halley Era, vol. 2 (Newburn, R.L. Jr., Neugebauer, M., Rahe, J., Eds.), 691721, Kluwer, Dordrecht.Google Scholar
Bessel, F.W.: 1836, “Bemerkungen über mögliche Unzulänglichkeit der die Anziehungen allein berücksichtigenden Theorie der Kometen”. Astron. Nachr., 13, 345350.Google Scholar
Bisikalo, D.V., Marov, M.Ya., Shematovich, V.I. and Strel'nitskij, : 1989, “The flow of the subliming gas in the near-nuclear (Knudsen) layer of the cometary coma”. Adv. Space Res., 9, (3)53(3)58.Google Scholar
Campbell, D.B., Harmon, J.K. and Shapiro, I.I.: 1989, “Radar observations of comet Halley”. Astrophys. J., 338, 10941105.Google Scholar
Carusi, A., Marsden, B.G. and Valsecchi, G.B.: 1993, “The probable collision of P/Shoemaker-Levy 9 (1993e) with Jupiter in 1994”. Planet. Space Sci., in press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cosmovici, C.B., Schwarz, G., Ip, W.-H. and Mack, P.: 1988, “Gas and dust jets in the inner coma of comet Halley”. Nature, 332, 705709.Google Scholar
Crifo, J.F.: 1987, “Improved gas-kinetic treatment of cometary water sublimation and recondensation: application to comet P/Halley”. Astron. Astrophys., 187, 438450.Google Scholar
Crovisier, J.: 1993, “Molecular abundances in comets”. Planet. Space Sci., in press.Google Scholar
Curdt, W. and Keller, H.U.: 1989, “Large Dust Particles along the Giotto Trajectory”. MPAE Report, MPAE-W-55-89-19.Google Scholar
Daniels, P.A. and Hughes, D.W.: 1981, “The Accretion of Cosmic Dust – A Computer Simulation”. Mon. Not. R. Astr. Soc., 195, 10011009.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Divine, N., Fechtig, H., Gombosi, T.I., Hanner, M.S., Keller, H.U., Larson, S.M., Mendis, D.A., Newburn, R.L. Jr., Reinhard, R., Sekanina, Z. and Yeomans, D.K.: 1986, “The Comet Halley dust and gas environment”. Space Sci. Rev., 43, 1104.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Donn, B.D.: 1990, “The formation and structure of fluffy cometary nuclei from random accumulation of grains”. Astron. Astrophys., 235, 441446.Google Scholar
Edenhofer, P., Bird, M.K., Brenkle, J.P., Buschert, H., Kursinski, E.R., Mottinger, N.A., Porsche, H., Stelzried, C.T. and Volland, H.: 1987, “Dust distribution of comet P/Halley's inner coma determined from the Giotto Radio-Science Experiment”. Astron. Astrophys., 187, 712718.Google Scholar
Espinasse, S., Klinger, J., Ritz, C. and Schmitt, B.: 1989, “A method of estimating temperature profiles and chemical differentiation in the near surface layers of porous comet nuclei – first results for comet P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko”. In Physics and Mechanics of Cometary Materials, ESA SP-302 (Hunt, J., Guyenne, T.D., Eds.), 185190, ESA Publ. Div. Google Scholar
Espinasse, S., Klinger, J., Ritz, C. and Schmitt, B.: 1991, “Modeling of the Thermal Behavior and of the Chemical Differentiation of Cometary Nuclei”. Icarus, 92, 350365.Google Scholar
Fanale, F.P. and Salvail, J.R.: 1984, “An idealized short-period comet model: Surface insolation, H2O flux, dust flux, and mantle evolution”. Icarus, 60, 476511.Google Scholar
Festou, M.C., Rickman, H. and Kamél, L.: 1990, “Using comet light-curve asymmetries to predict comet returns”. Nature, 345, 235238.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Greenberg, J.M.: 1989a, “Interstellar Dust: an Overview of Physical and Chemical Evolution”. In Evolution of Interstellar Dust and Related Topics (Bonetti, A., Greenberg, J.M., Aiello, S., Eds.), 752, North Holland.Google Scholar
Greenberg, J.M.: 1989b, “From interstellar dust to comet dust and interplanetary matter”. In Highl. of Astron. (McNally, D., Ed.), 8, 241250, IAU.Google Scholar
Grün, E., Bar-Nun, A., Benkhoff, J., Bischoff, A., Düren, H., Hellmann, H., Hesselbarth, P., Hsiung, P., Keller, H.U., Klinger, J., Knölker, J., Kochan, H., Kohl, H., Kölzer, G., Krankowsky, D., Lämmerzahl, P., Mauersberger, K., Neukum, G., Oehler, A., Ratke, L., Roessler, K., Schwehm, G., Spohn, T., Stöffler, D. and Thiel, K.: 1991, “Laboratory simulation of cometary processes: Results from first KOSI experiments”. In Comets in the Post-Halley Era, vol. 1 (Newburn, R.L. Jr., Neugebauer, M., Rahe, J., Eds.), 277297, Kluwer, Dordrecht.Google Scholar
Haruyama, J., Yamamoto, T., Mizutani, H. and Greenberg, J.M.: 1993, “Thermal History of Comets during Residence in the Oort Cloud: Effect of Radiogenic Heating in Combination with the Very Low Thermal Conductivity of Amorphous Ice”. J. Geophys. Res. Planets, in press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Horányi, M. and Kecskeméty, K.: 1983, “Cometary dust”. In Asteroids, Comets, Meteors (Lagerkvist, C.-I., Rickman, H., Eds.), 269272, Uppsala Univ. Reprocentralen.Google Scholar
Horányi, M., Gombosi, T.I., Cravens, T.E., Körösmezey, A., Kecskeméty, K., Nagy, A.F. and Szegö, K.: 1984, “The friable sponge model of a cometary nucleus”. Astrophys. J., 278, 449455.Google Scholar
Hughes, D.W.: 1988, “Cometary Magnitude Distribution and the Ratio between the Numbers of Long- and Short-Period Comets”. Icarus, 73, 149162.Google Scholar
Jewitt, D.C. and Meech, K.: 1988, “Optical properties of cometary nuclei and a preliminary comparison with asteroids”. Astrophys. J., 328, 974986.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Keller, H.U.: 1989, “Comets – dirty snowballs or icy dirtballs?”. In Physics and Mechanics of Cometary Materials, ESA SP-302 (Hunt, J., Guyenne, T.D., Eds.), 3945, ESA Publ. Div. Google Scholar
Keller, H.U.: 1990, “The Nucleus”. In Physics and Chemistry of Comets (Huebner, W.F., Ed.), 1368, Springer-Verlag.Google Scholar
Kitamura, Y.: 1986, “Axisymmetric Dusty Gas Jet in the Inner Coma of a Comet”. Icarus, 66, 241257.Google Scholar
Klinger, J.: 1980, “Influence of a Phase Transition of Ice on the Heat and Mass Balance of Comets”. Science, 209, 271272.Google Scholar
Klinger, J.: 1983, “Classification of Cometary Orbits Based on the Concept of Orbital Mean Temperature”. Icarus, 55, 169176.Google Scholar
Kochan, H., Roessler, K., Ratke, L., Heyl, M., Hellmann, H. and Schwehm, G.: 1989, “Crustal strength of different model comet materials”. In Physics and Mechanics of Cometary Materials, ESA SP-302 (Hunt, J., Guyenne, T.D., Eds.), 115119, ESA Publ. Div. Google Scholar
Kouchi, A., Greenberg, J.M., Yamamoto, T. and Mukai, T.: 1992, “Extremely low thermal conductivity of amorphous ice: relevance to comet evolution”. Astrophys. J. Lett., 388, L73L76.Google Scholar
Kührt, E. and Keller, H.U.: 1993, “The formation of cometary surface crusts”. Icarus, in press.Google Scholar
Langevin, Y., Kissel, J., Bertaux, J.-L. and Chassefière, E.: 1987, “First statistical analysis of 5000 mass spectra of cometary grains obtained by PUMA 1 (Vega 1) and PIA (Giotto) impact ionization mass spectrometers in the compressed modes”. Astron. Astrophys., 187, 761766.Google Scholar
Lunine, J., Engel, S., Rizk, B. and Horányi, M.: 1991, “Sublimation and Reformation of Icy Grains in the Primitive Solar Nebula”. Icarus, 94, 333344.Google Scholar
McDonnell, J.A.M., McBride, N., Beard, R., Bussoletti, E., Colangeli, L., Eberhardt, P., Firth, J.G., Grard, R., Green, S.F., Greenberg, J.M., Grün, E., Hughes, D.W., Keller, H.U., Kissel, J., Lindblad, B.A., Mandeville, J.-C., Perry, C.H., Rembor, K., Rickman, H., Schwehm, G., Turner, R.F., Wallis, M.K. and Zarnecki, J.C.: 1993, “Dust Impact Detection System: first results from the Giotto Extended Mission encounter with Comet Grigg-Skjellerup”. Nature, 362, 732734.Google Scholar
Meech, K.J.: 1993, “Observations of the cessation of activity in Comets P/Halley, Torres (1987 V), and Bowell (1982 I) and implications for the mechanism of the P/Halley outburst”. In Workshop on the Activity of Distant Comets (Huebner, W.F., Keller, H.U., Jewitt, D., Klinger, J., West, R., Eds.), 1220, Southwest Research Institute.Google Scholar
Mumma, M.J., Weissman, P.R. and Stern, S.A.: 1993, “Comets and the Origin of the Solar System: Reading the Rosetta Stone”. In Protostars and Planets III (Levy, E.H., Lunine, J.I., Matthews, M.S., Eds.), 11771252, Univ. of Arizona Press, Tucson.Google Scholar
Pätzold, M., Edenhofer, P., Bird, M.K. and Volland, H.: 1993, “The Giotto encounter with comet P/Grigg-Skjellerup: first results from the Giotto Radio-Science Experiment”. Astron. Astrophys. Lett., 268, L13L16.Google Scholar
Peale, S.J.: 1990, “On the Density of Halley's Comet”. Icarus, 82, 3649.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Prialnik, D. and Bar-Nun, A.: 1987, “On the evolution and activity of cometary nuclei”. Astrophys. J., 313, 893905.Google Scholar
Prialnik, D. and Bar-Nun, A.: 1988, “The Formation of a Permanent Dust Mantle and Its Effect on Cometary Activity”. Icarus, 74, 272283.Google Scholar
Prialnik, D. and Bar-Nun, A.: 1993, “Distant Outbursts of Comet P/Halley Caused by Crystallization of Amorphous Ice”. In Workshop on the Activity of Distant Comets (Huebner, W.F., Keller, H.U., Jewitt, D., Klinger, J., West, R., Eds.), 100109, Southwest Research Institute.Google Scholar
Prialnik, D., Egozi, U., Bar-Nun, A., Podolak, M. and Greenzweig, Y.: 1993, “On Pore Size and Fracture in Gas-Laden Comet Nuclei”. Icarus, in press.Google Scholar
Rickman, H.: 1989, “The nucleus of Comet Halley: surface structure, mean density, gas and dust production”. Adv. Space Res., 9, (3)59(3)71.Google Scholar
Rickman, H.: 1992a, “Cometary nuclei – recent gas flux modelling and applications”. Ann. Geophysicae, 10, 157168.Google Scholar
Rickman, H.: 1992b, “Physico-Dynamical Evolution of Aging Comets”. In Interrelations between Physics and Dynamics for Minor Bodies in the Solar System, Goutelas 1991 (Benest, D., Froeschlé, C., Eds.), 197263, Ed. Frontières.Google Scholar
Rickman, H. and Fernández, J.A.: 1986, “Formation and Blowoff of a Cometary Dust Mantle”. In Comet Nucleus Sample Return Mission, ESA SP-249 (Melita, O., Ed.), 185194, ESA Publ. Div. Google Scholar
Rickman, H., Fernández, J.A. and Gustafson, B.Å.S.: 1990, “Formation of stable dust mantles on short-period comet nuclei”. Astron. Astrophys., 237, 524535.Google Scholar
Rickman, H., Festou, M.C., Tancredi, G. and Kamél, L.: 1992, “Twentieth century light curves and the nucleus of comet P/Tempel 2”. In Asteroids, Comets, Meteors 1991 (Harris, A.W., Bowell, E., Eds.), 509512, Lunar and Planetary Institute, Houston.Google Scholar
Sagdeev, R.Z., Elyasberg, P.E. and Moroz, V.I.: 1988, “Is the nucleus of Comet Halley a low-density body?”. Nature, 331, 240242.Google Scholar
Schmitt, B., Espinasse, S., Grim, R.J.A., Greenberg, J.M. and Klinger, J.: 1989, “Laboratory studies of cometary ice analogues”. In Physics and Mechanics of Cometary Materials, ESA SP-302 (Hunt, J., Guyenne, T.D., Eds.), 6569, ESA Publ. Div. Google Scholar
Schmitt, B., Espinasse, S. and Klinger, J.: 1993, “A possible explanation of the outburst of Comet P/Halley at 14 astronomical units from the Sun”. In Workshop on the Activity of Distant Comets (Huebner, W.F., Keller, H.U., Jewitt, D., Klinger, J., West, R., Eds.), 124132, Southwest Research Institute.Google Scholar
Sekanina, Z.: 1982, “The problem of split comets in review”. In Comets (Wilkening, L.L., Ed.), 251287, Univ. Arizona Press.Google Scholar
Sekanina, Z.: 1984, “Precession model for the nucleus of periodic comet Kopff”. Astron. J., 89, 15731586.Google Scholar
Sekanina, Z.: 1987, “Nucleus of Comet Halley as a Torque-Free Rigid Rotator”. Nature, 325, 326328.Google Scholar
Sekanina, Z.: 1992, “Effect of discrete-source outgassing on motions of periodic comets and discontinuous orbital anomalies”. Astron. J., 105, 702735.Google Scholar
Shul'man, L.M.: 1972, “The evolution of cometary nuclei”. In The Motion, Evolution of Orbits, and Origin of Comets (Chebotarev, G.A., Kazimirchak-Polonskaya, E.I., Marsden, B. G., Eds.), 271276, D. Reidel Publ. Co. CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shul'man, L.M.: 1981, “A two-layer model of the cometary nucleus”. Astrometria i Astrofisica, 45, 2134.Google Scholar
Shul'man, L.M.: 1992, “On the Intrinsic Source of Energy in Cometary Nuclei: Amorphous Ice or Hydrated Ions?”. Bull. Amer. Astron. Soc., 24, 1012 (Abstract).Google Scholar
Tancredi, G., Rickman, H. and Greenberg, J.M.: 1993, “Thermochemistry of cometary nuclei. I. The Jupiter family case”. Astron. Astrophys., in press.Google Scholar
Whipple, F.L.: 1950, “A comet model. I. The acceleration of Comet Encke”. Astrophys. J., 111, 375394.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Whipple, F.L. and Sekanina, Z.: 1979, “Comet Encke: Precession of the spin axis, nongravitational motion and sublimation”. Astron. J., 84, 18941909.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Whipple, F.L. and Stefanik, R.P.: 1966, “On the physics and splitting of cometary nuclei”. Mém. Soc. Roy. Sci. Liège, Sér. 5, 12, 3352.Google Scholar
Yeomans, D.K. and Chodas, P.C.: 1989, “An asymmetric outgassing model for cometary nongravitational accelerations”. Astron. J., 98, 10831093.Google Scholar