Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-t7fkt Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-23T20:55:29.580Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

AN EYE FOR WORDS

Gauging the Role of Attention in Incidental L2 Vocabulary Acquisition by Means of Eye-Tracking

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  23 July 2013

Aline Godfroid ,
Frank Boers  and
Alex Housen
Aline Godfroid*
Affiliation:
Michigan State University
Frank Boers
Affiliation:
Victoria University of Wellington
Alex Housen
Affiliation:
Vrije Universiteit Brussel
*
*Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Dr. Aline Godfroid, Department of Linguistics and Languages, Michigan State University, B253 Wells Hall, 619 Red Cedar Road, East Lansing, MI, 48824. E-mail: [email protected]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

This eye-tracking study tests the hypothesis that more attention leads to more learning, following claims that attention to new language elements in the input results in their initial representation in long-term memory (i.e., intake; Robinson, 2003; Schmidt, 1990, 2001).

Twenty-eight advanced learners of English read English texts that contained 12 targets for incidental word learning. The target was a known word (control condition), a matched pseudoword, or that pseudoword preceded or followed by the known word (with the latter being a cue to the pseudoword’s meaning). Participants’ eye-fixation durations on the targets during reading served as a measure of the amount of attention paid (see Rayner, 2009).

Results indicate that participants spent more time processing the unknown pseudowords than their matched controls. The longer participants looked at a pseudoword during reading, the more likely they were to recognize that word in an unannounced vocabulary posttest. Finally, the known, appositive cues were fixated longer when they followed the pseudowords than when they preceded them; however, their presence did not lead to higher retention of the pseudowords.

We discuss how eye-tracking may add to existing methodologies for studying attention and noticing (Schmidt, 1990) in SLA.

Type
Articles
Information
Studies in Second Language Acquisition , Volume 35 , Issue 3 , September 2013 , pp. 483 - 517
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2013 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

REFERENCES

Alanen, R. (1995). Input enhancement and rule presentation in second language acquisition. In Schmidt, R. W. (Ed.), Attention and awareness in foreign language learning (pp. 259–302). Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press.Google Scholar
Baars, B. J. (1988). A cognitive theory of consciousness. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Baars, B. J. (1997). In the theater of consciousness: The workspace of the mind. Oxford: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baars, B. J., & Gage, N. M. (2010). Cognition, brain and consciousness: Introduction to cognitive neuroscience (2nd ed.). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Baddeley, A. D. (2007). Working memory, thought, and action. Oxford: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bowles, M. A. (2010). The think-aloud controversy in second language research. London: Routledge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brysbaert, M., Drieghe, D., & Vitu, F. (2005). Word skipping: Implications for theories of eye movement control in reading. In Underwood, G. (Ed.), Cognitive processes in eye guidance (pp. 53–78). Oxford: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carroll, S. E. (2006a). The “micro-structure” of a learning problem: Prosodic prominence, attention, segmentation and word learning in a second language. In Gurski, C. & Radisic, M. (Eds.), Proceedings of the 2006 annual conference of the Canadian Linguistic Association (pp. 1–12). Retrieved from http://ling.uwo.ca/publications/CLA2006/Carroll.pdfGoogle Scholar
Carroll, S. E. (2006b). Salience, awareness and SLA. In Grantham O’Brien, M., Shea, C., & Archibald, J. (Eds.), Proceedings of the 8th Generative Approaches to Second Language Acquisition Conference (GASLA 2006) (pp. 17–24). Somerville, MA: Cascadilla Press.Google Scholar
Council of Europe. (2001). Common European Framework of reference for languages: Learning, teaching, assessment. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Cowan, N. (1988). Evolving conceptions of memory storage, selective attention, and their mutual constraints within the human information-processing system. Psychological Bulletin, 104, 163–191.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cowan, N. (1995). Attention and memory: An integrated framework. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Craik, F. I. M., & Lockhart, R. S. (1972). Levels of processing: A framework for memory research. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behaviour, 11, 671–684.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Craik, F. I. M., & Tulving, E. (1975). Depth of processing and the retention of words in episodic memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 104, 268–294.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Crystal, D. (1997). A dictionary of linguistics and phonetics. Oxford: Blackwell.Google Scholar
de Bot, K., Lowie, W., & Verspoor, M. (2005). Second language acquisition: An advanced resource book. London: Routledge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dehaene, S., & Changeux, J. (2004). Neural mechanisms for access to consciousness. In Gazzaniga, M. S. (Ed.), The cognitive neurosciences (3rd ed., pp. 1145–1158). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar
Dehaene, S., & Naccache, L. (2001). Towards a cognitive neuroscience of consciousness: Basic evidence and a workspace framework. Cognition, 79, 1–37.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dijkstra, T. (2005). Bilingual visual word recognition and lexical access. In Kroll, J. F. & de Groot, A. M. B. (Eds.), Handbook of bilingualism: Psycholinguistic approaches (pp. 179–201). Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Dörnyei, Z. (2009). The psychology of second language acquisition. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Duncan, L. G., & Seymour, P. H. K. (2003). How do children read multisyllabic words? Some preliminary observations. Journal of Research in Reading, 26, 101–120.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Duncan, L. G., Seymour, P. H. K., & Bolik, F. (2007). Rimes and superrimes: An exploration of children’s disyllabic rhyming skills. British Journal of Psychology, 98, 199–221.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Duyck, W., Van Assche, E., Drieghe, D., & Hartsuiker, R. J. (2007). Visual word recognition by bilinguals in a sentence context: Evidence for nonselective lexical access. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 33, 663–679.Google Scholar
Ellis, N. (2002). Frequency effects in language processing. A review with implications for theories of implicit and explicit language acquisition. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 24, 143–188.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ellis, R. (2001). Introduction: Investigating form-focused instruction. Language Learning, 51, 1–46.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ellis, R. (2008). The study of second language acquisition (2nd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Ericsson, K. A., & Simon, H. A. (1993). Protocol analysis: Verbal reports as data (Rev. ed.). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fox, M. C., Ericsson, K. A., & Best, R. (2011). Do procedures for verbal reporting of thinking have to be reactive? A meta-analysis and recommendations for best reporting methods. Psychological Bulletin, 137, 316–344.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gass, S. M., & Selinker, L. (2008). Second language acquisition: An introductory course (3rd ed.). London: Routledge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gazzaniga, M. S., LeDoux, J. E., & Wilson, D. H. (1977). Language, praxis, and the right hemisphere: Clues to some mechanisms of consciousness. Neurology, 27, 1144–1147.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Godfroid, A. (2010). Cognitive processes in second language acquisition: The role of noticing, attention and awareness in processing words in written L2 input (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Belgium.Google Scholar
Godfroid, A., Housen, A., & Boers, F. (2010). A procedure for testing the Noticing Hypothesis in the context of vocabulary acquisition. In Pütz, M. & Sicola, L. (Eds.), Inside the learner’s mind: Cognitive processing and second language acquisition (pp. 169–197). Amsterdam: Benjamins.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Godfroid, A., & Spino, L. (2011, October). Reading in the experimental laboratory: A comparison of different data collection methods. Paper presented at the Second Language Research Forum, Ames, IA.Google Scholar
Godfroid, A., & Uggen, M. S. (2013). Attention to irregular verbs by beginning learners of German: An eye-movement study. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 35, 291–322.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Godfroid, A., Winke, P. M., & Gass, S. (Eds.) (2013). Thematic issue on eye tracking in second language acquisition research. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 35.Google Scholar
Hama, M., & Leow, R. P. (2010). Learning without awareness revisited: Extending Williams (2005). Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 32, 465–491.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hanaoka, O. (2007). Output, noticing, and learning: An investigation into the role of spontaneous attention to form in a four-stage writing task. Language Teaching Research, 11, 459–479.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hardin, J. W., & Hilbe, J. M. (2003). Generalized estimating equations. London: Chapman & Hall/CRC.Google Scholar
Heatley, A., & Nation, P. (1994). Range [Computer software]. Wellington, NZ: Victoria University of Wellington.Google Scholar
Hecht, J. (2004, October 1). Invisible gorilla steals Ig Nobel prize. New Scientist. Retrieved from http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn6468Google Scholar
Hinkelmann, K., & Kempthorne, O. (2008). Design and analysis of experiments: Introduction to experimental design (2nd ed.). New York: Wiley.Google Scholar
Huckin, T., & Coady, J. (1999). Incidental vocabulary acquisition in a second language: A review. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 21, 181–193.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hulstijn, J. H. (1992). Retention of inferred and given word meanings: Experiments in incidental vocabulary learning. In Arnaud, P. J. & Bejoint, H. (Eds.), Vocabulary and applied linguistics (pp. 113–125). London: Macmillan.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hulstijn, J. H. (2001). Intentional and incidental second-language vocabulary learning: A reappraisal of elaboration, rehearsal and automaticity. In Robinson, P. (Ed.), Cognition and second language instruction (pp. 258–286). New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hulstijn, J. H. (2003). Incidental and intentional learning. In Doughty, C. & Long, M. H. (Eds.), The handbook of second language acquisition (pp. 349–381). Oxford: Blackwell.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Izumi, S. (2002). Output, input enhancement, and the Noticing Hypothesis: An experimental study on ESL relativization. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 24, 541–577.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Izumi, S., & Bigelow, M. (2000). Does output promote noticing in second language acquisition? TESOL Quarterly, 34, 239–278.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Izumi, S., Bigelow, M., Fujiwara, M., & Fearnow, S. (1999). Testing the output hypothesis: Effects of output on noticing and second language acquisition. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 21, 421–452.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
James, W. (1890). The principles of psychology. New York: Henry Holt.Google Scholar
Jourdenais, R. (2001). Cognition, instruction, and protocol analysis. In Robinson, P. (Ed.), Cognition and second language instruction (pp. 354–375). New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jourdenais, R., Ota, M., Stauffer, S., Boyson, B., & Doughty, C. (1995). Does textual enhancement promote noticing? A think-aloud analysis. In Schmidt, R. W. (Ed.), Attention and awareness in foreign language learning (pp. 183–216). Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press.Google Scholar
Just, M. A., & Carpenter, P. A. (1980). A theory of reading: From eye fixations to comprehension. Psychological Review, 87, 329–354.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kliegl, R., Grabner, E., Rolfs, M., & Engbert, R. (2004). Length, frequency, and predictability effects of words on eye movements in reading. European Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 16, 262–284.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kliegl, R., Nuthmann, A., & Engbert, R. (2006). Tracking the mind during reading: The influence of past, present, and future words on fixation durations. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 135, 12–35.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Koch, C. (2004). The quest for consciousness: A neurobiological approach. Englewood, CO: Roberts & Company.Google Scholar
Kroll, J. F., & Stewart, E. (1994). Category interference in translation and picture naming: Evidence for asymmetric connections between bilingual memory representations. Journal of Memory and Language, 33, 149–174.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kutner, M. H., Nachtsheim, C. J., Neter, J., & Li, W. (2005). Applied linear statistical models (5th ed.). Boston: McGraw-Hill/Irwin.Google Scholar
Lamme, V. A. F. (2003). Why visual attention and awareness are different. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 7, 12–18.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Laufer, B. (2005). Focus on form in second language vocabulary learning. In Foster-Cohen, S. H., García Mayo, M. P., & Cenoz, J. (Eds.), EUROSLA Yearbook 5 (pp. 223–250). Amsterdam: Benjamins.Google Scholar
Laufer, B., & Hulstijn, J. (2001). Incidental vocabulary acquisition in a second language: The construct of task-induced involvement. Applied Linguistics, 22, 1–26.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Leow, R. P. (1997). Attention, awareness, and foreign language behavior. Language Learning, 47, 467–505.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Leow, R. P. (2000). A study of the role of awareness in foreign language behavior: Aware versus unaware learners. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 22, 557–584.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Leow, R. P., Johnson, E., & Zárate-Sández, G. (2011). Getting a grip on the slippery construct of awareness: Toward a finer-grained methodological perspective. In Sanz, C. & Leow, R. P. (Eds.), Implicit and explicit language learning: Conditions, processes, and knowledge in SLA and bilingualism (pp. 61–72). Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press.Google Scholar
Lightbrown, P. M., & Spada, N. (2006). How languages are learned (3rd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Liversedge, S. P., & Findlay, J. M. (2000). Saccadic eye movements and cognition. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 4, 6–14.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Liversedge, S. P., Rayner, K., White, S. J., Vergilino-Perez, D., Findlay, J. M., & Kentridge, R. W. (2004). Eye movements when reading disappearing text: Is there a gap effect in reading? Vision Research, 44, 1013–1024.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Logan, G. D. (1988). Toward an instance theory of automatization. Psychological Review, 95, 492–527.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mäntylä, T. (2001). Incidental versus intentional memory. In Smelser, N. J. & Baltes, P. B. (Eds.), International encyclopedia of the social and behavioral sciences (pp. 7262–7265). Oxford: Pergamon.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Meyer, C. F. (1987). Apposition in English. Journal of English Linguistics, 20, 101–121.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mondria, J., & Wiersma, B. (2004). Receptive, productive, and receptive + productive L2 vocabulary learning: What difference does it make? In Bogaards, P. & Laufer, B. (Eds.), Vocabulary in a second language: Selection, acquisition, and testing (pp. 79–100). Amsterdam: Benjamins.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nation, I. S. P. (2001). Learning vocabulary in another language. New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ortega, L. (2009). Understanding second language acquisition. London: Hodder Education.Google Scholar
Paribakht, T. S., & Wesche, M. (1999). Reading and “incidental” L2 vocabulary acquisition: An introspective study of lexical inferencing. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 21, 195–224.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Posner, M. I. (1994). Attention: The mechanisms of consciousness. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA, 91, 7398–7403.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Posner, M. I., & Rothbart, M. K. (1992). Attention and conscious experience. In Milner, A. D. & Rugg, M. D. (Eds.), The neuropsychology of consciousness (pp. 91–112). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Quirk, R. S., Greenbaum, S., Leech, G., & Svartvik, J. (1985). A comprehensive grammar of the English language. London: Longman.Google Scholar
Rayner, K. (1998). Eye movements in reading and information processing: 20 years of research. Psychological Bulletin, 124, 372–422.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rayner, K. (2009). Eye movements and attention in reading, scene perception, and visual search. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 62, 1457–1506.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rayner, K., & Duffy, S. A. (1986). Lexical complexity and fixation times in reading: Effects of word frequency, verb complexity, and lexical ambiguity. Memory & Cognition, 14, 191–201.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rayner, K., & Fischer, M. H. (1996). Mindless reading revisited: Eye movements during reading and scanning are different. Perception & Psychophysics, 58, 734–747.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rayner, K., Inhoff, A. W., Morrison, R. E., Slowiaczek, M. L., & Bertera, J. H. (1981). Masking of foveal and parafoveal vision during eye fixations in reading. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 7, 167–179.Google ScholarPubMed
Rayner, K., Liversedge, S. P., & White, S. J. (2006). Eye movements when reading disappearing text: The importance of the word to the right of fixation. Vision Research, 46, 310–323.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rayner, K., Liversedge, S. P., White, S. J., & Vergilino-Perez, D. (2003). Reading disappearing text: Cognitive control of eye movements. Psychological Science, 14, 385–389.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rayner, K., & McConkie, G. (1976). What guides a reader’s eye movements? Vision Research, 16, 829–837.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rayner, K., & Raney, G. E. (1996). Eye movement control in reading and visual search: Effects of word frequency. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 3, 245–248.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rayner, K., Sereno, S. C., & Raney, G. E. (1996). Eye movement control in reading: A comparison of two types of models. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 22, 1188–1200.Google Scholar
Read, J. (2004). Research in teaching vocabulary. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 24, 146–161.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reichle, E. D., Pollatsek, A., & Rayner, K. (2006). E-Z Reader: A cognitive-control, serial-attention model of eye-movement behavior during reading. Cognitive Systems Research, 7, 4–22.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Robinson, P. (1995). Attention, memory and the “noticing” hypothesis. Language Learning, 45, 283–331.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Robinson, P. (2003). Attention and memory during SLA. In Doughty, C. & Long, M. H. (Eds.), The handbook of second language acquisition (pp. 631–678). Oxford: Blackwell.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rosa, E., & Leow, R. P. (2004). Awareness, different learning conditions, and L2 development. Applied Psycholinguistics, 25, 269–292.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rosa, E., & O’Neill, M. D. (1999). Explicitness, intake, and the issue of awareness: Another piece to the puzzle. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 21, 511–556.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sachs, R., & Polio, C. (2007). Learners’ uses of two types of written feedback on an L2 writing revision task. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 29, 67–100.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schmidt, R. W. (1990). The role of consciousness in second language learning. Applied Linguistics, 11, 129–158.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schmidt, R. W. (1994). Implicit learning and the cognitive unconscious: Of artificial grammars and SLA. In Ellis, N. C. (Ed.), Implicit and explicit learning of languages (pp. 165–209). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Schmidt, R. W. (1995). Consciousness and foreign language learning: A tutorial on the role of attention and awareness in learning. In Schmidt, R. W. (Ed.), Attention and awareness in foreign language learning (pp. 1–63). Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press.Google Scholar
Schmidt, R. W. (2001). Attention. In Robinson, P. (Ed.), Cognition and second language instruction (pp. 3–32). New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schmitt, N. (2000). Vocabulary in language teaching. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Schmitt, N. (2008). Instructed second language vocabulary learning. Language Teaching Research, 12, 329–363.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schmitt, N. (2010). Researching vocabulary: A vocabulary research manual. Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smith, B. (2010). Employing eye-tracking technology in researching the effectiveness of recasts in CMC. In Hult, F. M. (Ed.), Directions and prospects for educational linguistics (pp. 79–97). New York: Springer Verlag.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smith, B. (2012). Eye tracking as a measure of noticing: A study of explicit recasts in SCMC. Language Learning & Technology, 16, 53–81.Google Scholar
Starr, M. S., & Rayner, K. (2001). Eye movements during reading: Some current controversies. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 5, 156–163.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Swain, M. (1995). Three functions of output in second language learning. In Cook, G. & Seidlhofer, B. (Eds.), Principle and practice in applied linguistics: Studies in honor of H. G. Widdowson (pp. 125–144). Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Swain, M. (1998). Focus on form through conscious reflection. In Doughty, C. & Williams, J. (Eds.), Focus on form in classroom second language acquisition (pp. 64–82). New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Swain, M. (2005). The output hypothesis: Theory and research. In Hinkel, E. (Ed.), Handbook of research in second language teaching and learning (pp. 471–484). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Tinker, M. A. (1936). Reliability and validity of eye-movement measures of reading. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 19, 732–746.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tomlin, R. S., & Villa, V. (1994). Attention in cognitive science and second language acquisition. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 16, 183–203.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Truscott, J. (1998). Noticing in second language acquisition: A critical review. Second Language Research, 14, 103–135.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Truscott, J., & Sharwood Smith, M. (2011). Input, intake, and consciousness: The quest for a theoretical foundation. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 33, 497–528.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Uggen, M. S. (2012). Reinvestigating the noticing function of output. Language Learning, 62, 506–640.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Watanabe, Y. (1997). Input, intake, and retention: Effects of increased processing on incidental learning of foreign language vocabulary. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 19, 287–307.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Webb, S. (2008). Receptive and productive vocabulary sizes of L2 learners. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 30, 79–95.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weiskrantz, L. (1997). Consciousness lost and found: A neuropsychological exploration. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
White, S. J. (2008). Eye movement control during reading: Effects of word frequency and orthographic familiarity. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 34, 205–223.Google ScholarPubMed
Williams, R. S., & Morris, R. K. (2004). Eye movements, word familiarity, and vocabulary acquisition. European Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 16, 312–339.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Winke, P. M. (2013). The effects of input enhancement on grammar learning and comprehension: A modified replication of Lee (2007) with eye-movement data. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 35, pp. 323–352.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wiseman, R. (2007, May 12). A quirky look at our quirky species. New Scientist. Retrieved from http://www.newscientist.com/channel/being-human/mg19426031.700-a-quirky-look-at-our-quirky-species.htmlGoogle Scholar
Wong, W., & Simard, D. (2000). La saisie: Cette grande oubliée! [Intake: The forgotten factor]. Acquisition et Interaction en Langue Etrangère, 14, 59–86.Google Scholar
Wyart, V., & Tallon-Baudry, C. (2008). Neural dissociation between visual awareness and spatial attention. The Journal of Neuroscience, 28, 2667–2679.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Yang, C. L., Perfetti, C. A., & Liu, Y. (2010). Sentence integration processes: An ERP study of Chinese sentence comprehension with relative clauses. Brain & Language, 112, 85–100.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed