Hostname: page-component-f554764f5-qhdkw Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-04-20T20:16:13.074Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

THE CONSTRUCT VALIDITY OF LANGUAGE APTITUDE

A Meta-Analysis

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  18 December 2015

Shaofeng Li
Shaofeng Li*
Affiliation:
University of Auckland
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

A meta-analysis was conducted to examine the construct validity of language aptitude by synthesizing the existing research that has been accumulated over the past five decades. The study aimed to provide a thorough understanding of the construct by aggregating the data reported in the primary research on its correlations with other individual difference variables and with second language (L2) achievement. A total of 66 studies were retrieved that contributed effect sizes based on 109 unique samples and 13,035 foreign language learners. The results revealed that (1) aptitude was independent of other cognitive and affective factors: it was distinct from motivation, had a negative correlation with anxiety, and overlapped with, but was distinguishable from, intelligence; (2) executive working memory was more strongly associated with aptitude and aptitude components than phonological short-term memory; (3) aptitude measured using full-length tests was a strong predictor of general L2 proficiency, but it had low predictive validity for vocabulary learning and L2 writing; and (4) different aptitude components demonstrated differential predictive validity for different aspects of learning. The findings are useful for tackling a number of conundrums surrounding language aptitude and shed light on how to reconceptualize the construct and reorient the research.

Type
Articles
Information
Studies in Second Language Acquisition , Volume 38 , Issue 4 , December 2016 , pp. 801 - 842
Check for updates
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2015 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Article purchase

Temporarily unavailable

References

REFERENCES (studies included in the meta-analysis are marked with asterisks)

Abrahamsson, N., & Hyltenstam, K. (2008). The robustness of aptitude effects in near-native second language acquisition. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 30, 481–509.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ackermen, P., Beier, M., & Boyle, M. (2005). Working memory and intelligence. Psychological Bulletin, 131, 30–60.Google Scholar
Alderson, J. C., Clapham, C., & Steel, D. (1997). Metalinguistic knowledge, language aptitude and language proficiency. Language Teaching Research, 1, 93–121.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baddeley, A., Gathercole, S., & Papagno, C. (1998). Phonological loop as a language learning device. Psychological Review, 105, 158–73.Google Scholar
Bain, S. K., McCallum, R. S., Bell, S. M., Cochran, J. L., & Sawyer, S. C. (2010). Foreign language learning aptitudes, attitudes, attributions, and achievement of postsecondary students identified as gifted. Journal of Advanced Academics, 22, 130.Google Scholar
Bell, P. (2009). Le cadeau or la cadeau? The role of aptitude in learner awareness of gender distinctions in French. The Canadian Modern Language Review, 65, 615–643.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bell, S. M., & McCallum, R. S. (2012). Do foreign language learning, cognitive, and affective variables differ as a function of exceptionality status and gender? International Education, 42, 86–106.Google Scholar
Bialystok, E., & Fröhlich, M. (1978). Variables of classroom achievement in second language learning. The Modern Language Journal, 62, 327–336.Google Scholar
Biedron, A., & Szczepaniak, A. (2012). Working memory and short-term memory abilities in accomplished multilinguals. Modern Language Journal, 96, 290–306.Google Scholar
Bond, K. (2011). Examining morphological sensitivity and individual differences in the acquisition of agreement in a second language (Unpublished MA thesis). University of Kansas.Google Scholar
Borenstein, M., Hedges, L. V., Higgins, J. P. T., & Rothstein, H. R. (2009). Introduction to meta-analysis. Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Burgos-Kohler, N. (2002). The effect of a selected group of language learning strategies upon language development (Unpublished PhD dissertation). University of Texas at Austin.Google Scholar
Carpenter, H. S. (2008). A behavioural and electrophysiological investigation of different aptitudes for L2 grammar in learners equated for proficiency level (Unpublished PhD dissertation). Georgetown University.Google Scholar
Carroll, J. (1973). Implications of aptitude test research and psycholinguistic theory for foreign-language teaching. International Journal of Psycholinguistics, 2, 5–14.Google Scholar
Carroll, J. (1981). Twenty-five years of research on foreign language aptitude. In Diller, K., (Ed.), Individual differences and universals in language learning aptitude (pp. 83–118). Rowley, MA: Newbury House.Google Scholar
Carroll, J. (1990). Cognitive abilities in foreign language aptitude: Then and now. In Parry, T. & Stansfield, C. (Eds.), Language aptitude reconsidered (pp. 11–29). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.Google Scholar
Carroll, J., & Sapon, S. (1959). Modern language aptitude test. New York, NY: The Psychological Corporation/Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.Google Scholar
Carroll, J., & Sapon, S. (2002). Manual for the MLAT. Second Language Testing. N. Bethesda, MD.Google Scholar
Carroll, J., Sapon, S., Reed, D., & Stansfield, C. (2010). Manual for the MLAT. Second Language Testing. N. Bethesda, MD.Google Scholar
Child, J. (1998). Language aptitude testing: Learners and applications. Applied Language Learning, 9, 1–10.Google Scholar
Clément, R., & Kruidenier, B. (1985). Aptitude, attitude and motivation in second language proficiency: A test of Clément’s model. Journal of Language and Social Psychology 4, 21–37.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cochran, J. L., McCallum, R. S., & Bell, S. M. (2010). Three A’s: How do attributions, attitudes, and aptitude contribute to foreign language learning? Foreign Language Annals, 43, 566–582.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences, 2nd ed. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.Google Scholar
Cooper, C. (1964). Some relationships between paired-associates learning and foreign-language aptitude. Journal of Educational Psychology, 55, 132–138.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cronbach, J., & Meehl, P. (1955). Construct validity in psychological tests. Psychological Bulletin, 52, 281–302.Google Scholar
Cross, C., Copping, L., & Campbell, A. (2011). Sex differences in impulsivity: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 137(1), 97–130.Google Scholar
Curtin, C., Avner, A., & Smith, L. A. (1983). The Pimsleur Battery as a predictor of student performance. The Modern Language Journal, 67, 33–40.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Daneman, M., & Merikle, P. M. (1996). Working memory and language comprehension: A meta-analysis. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 3, 422–433.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
de Graaff, R. (1997). The eXperanto experiment: Effects of explicit instruction on second language acquisition. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 19, 249–276.Google Scholar
DeKeyser, R. (1993). The effect of error correction on L2 grammar knowledge and oral proficiency. The Modern Language Journal, 77, 501–514.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
DeKeyser, R. M. (2000). The robustness of critical period effects in second language acquisition. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 22, 499–533.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
DeKeyser, R., & Koeth, J. (2011). Cognitive aptitudes for second language learning. In Hinkel, E. (Ed.), Handbook of research in second language teaching and learning (pp. 395–406). New York, NY: Routledge.Google Scholar
Dörnyei, Z. (2005). The psychology of the language learner: Individual differences in second language acquisition. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.Google Scholar
Ehrman, M. (1998). The modern language aptitude test for predicting learning success and advising students. Applied Language Learning, 9, 31–70.Google Scholar
Ehrman, M. E., & Oxford, R. L. (1995). Cognition plus: Correlates of language learning success. The Modern Language Journal, 79, 67–89.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eisenstein, M. (1980). Childhood bilingualism and adult language learning aptitude. Applied Psychology, 29, 159–172.Google Scholar
Ellis, R. (2005). Measuring implicit and explicit knowledge of a second language: A psychometric study. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 27, 141–172.Google Scholar
Engel de Abreu, P. M., & Gathercole, S. E. (2012). Executive and phonological processes in second-language acquisition. Journal of Educational Psychology, 104, 974–986.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Erlam, R. (2005). Language aptitude and its relationship to instructional effectiveness in second language acquisition. Language Teaching Research, 9, 147–171.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Erlam, R. (2006). Elicited imitation as a measure of L2 implicit knowledge: An empirical validation study. Applied Linguistics, 27, 464–491.Google Scholar
Fischer, R., & Boer, D. (2011). What is more important for national well-being: Money or autonomy? A meta-analysis of well-being, burnout, and anxiety across 63 societies. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 101, 164–184.Google Scholar
Fujii, A. (2005). Individual differences in task performance: Aptitude profiles, orientation to form, and second language production in the EFL classroom (Unpublished PhD dissertation). Georgetown University.Google Scholar
Ganschow, L., & Sparks, R. (1995). Effects of direct instruction in Spanish phonology on the native-language skills and foreign-language aptitude of at-risk foreign-language learners. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 28, 107–120.Google Scholar
Ganschow, L., & Sparks, R. (1996). Anxiety about foreign language learning among high school women. Modern Language Journal, 80, 199–212.Google Scholar
Garcia, R. T. (1996). The relation among college student attitudes, motivation and aptitude to foreign language achievement: A test of Gardner’s model (Unpublished PhD dissertation). University of Houston.Google Scholar
Gardner, R. C. (1985). Social psychology and second language learning: The role of attitudes and motivation. London: Edward Arnold.Google Scholar
Gardner, R. C., & Lambert, W. E. (1965). Language aptitude, intelligence, and second-language achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 56, 191–199.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gardner, R., & Lysynchuk, L. (1990). The role of aptitude, attitudes, motivation, and language use on second-language acquisition and retention. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science, 22, 254–270.Google Scholar
Gardner, R., Moorcroft, R., & Metford, J. (1989). Second language learning in an immersion program: Factors influencing acquisition and retention. Journal of Language and Social Psychology, 8, 287–305.Google Scholar
Gardner, R., Tremblay, P., & Masgoret, A. (1997). Towards a full model of second language learning: An empirical investigation. The Modern Language Journal, 81, 344–362.Google Scholar
Goodman, J. F., Freed, B., & McManus, W. J. (1990). Determining exemptions from foreign language requirements: Use of the modern language aptitude test. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 15, 131–141.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gordon, M. E. (1980). Attitudes and motivation in second-language achievement: A study of primary school students learning English in Belize, Central America (Unpublished PhD dissertation). University of Toronto.Google Scholar
Granena, G. (2012). Age differences and cognitive aptitudes for implicit and explicit learning in ultimate second language attainment (Unpublished PhD dissertation). University of Maryland.Google Scholar
Granena, G. (2013). Individual differences in sequence learning ability and second language acquisition in early childhood and adulthood. Language Learning, 63, 665–704.Google Scholar
Granena, G. (2015). Cognitive aptitudes for implicit and explicit learning and information-processing styles: An individual differences study. Applied Linguistics, online. DOI: 10.1017/S0142716415000120 Google Scholar
Granena, G., & Long, M. H. (2013). Age of onset, length of residence, language aptitude, and ultimate L2 attainment in three linguistic domains. Second Language Research, 29, 311–343.Google Scholar
Grigorenko, E., Sternberg, R., & Ehrman, M. (2000). A theory-based approach to the measurement of foreign language learning ability: The Canal-F theory and test. The Modern Language Journal, 84, 390–405.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Groth-Marnat, G. (2003). Handbook of psychological assessment. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.Google Scholar
Harley, B., & Hart, D. (1997). Language aptitude and second language proficiency in classroom learners of different starting ages. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 19, 379–400.Google Scholar
Harley, B., & Hart, D. (2002). Age, aptitude, and second language learning on a bilingual exchange. In Robinson, P. (Ed.), Individual differences and instructed language learning (pp. 302–330). Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company.Google Scholar
Hauptman, P. C. (1971). A structural approach vs. a situational approach to foreign-language teaching. Language Learning, 21, 235–244.Google Scholar
Horwitz, E. K. (1980). The relationship of conceptual level to the development of communicative competence in French (Unpublished PhD dissertation). University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.Google Scholar
Horwitz, E. K. (2001). Language anxiety and achievement. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 21, 112–126.Google Scholar
Hsieh, C. (2004). Relationships between non-linguistic variables in second language acquisition and the attained English language proficiency of Taiwanese university students (Unpublished PhD dissertation). Lynn University.Google Scholar
Hummel, K. 2009. Aptitude, phonological memory, and second language proficiency in nonnovice adult learners. Applied Psycholinguistics, 30, 225–249.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hwu, F., & Sun, S. (2012). The aptitude-treatment interaction effects on the learning of grammar rules. System, 40, 505–521.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
In’nami, Y., & Koizumi, R. (2010). Database selection guidelines for meta-analysis in applied linguistics. TESOL Quarterly, 44, 169–184.Google Scholar
Juffs, A., & Harrington, M. (2012). Aspects of working memory in L2 learning. Language Teaching, 44, 137–166.Google Scholar
Keitges, D. J (1986). Relationships between foreign-language aptitude, attitudes and motivation, and personality traits, and the attained English language proficiency of Japanese university students (Unpublished PhD dissertation). University of Texas at Austin.Google Scholar
Kormos, J., & Trebits, A. (2012). The role of task complexity, modality, and aptitude in narrative task performance. Language Learning, 62, 439–472.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Krashen, S. (1981). Aptitude and attitude in relation to second language acquisition and learning. In Diller, K. (Ed.), Individual differences and universals in language learning aptitude (pp. 155–175). Rowley, MA: Newbury House.Google Scholar
Lado, B. (2008). The role of bilingualism, type of feedback, and cognitive capacity in the acquisition of non-primary languages: A computer-based study (Unpublished PhD dissertation). Georgetown University.Google Scholar
Lalonde, R. N., & Gardner, R. C. (1984). Investigating a causal model of second language acquisition: Where does personality fit? Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science 16, 224–237.Google Scholar
Lee, S. (2008). Salience, frequency, and aptitude in the learning of unaccusativity in a second language: An input enhancement study (Unpublished PhD dissertation). University of Hawaii.Google Scholar
Li, S. (2013). The interactions between the effects of implicit and explicit feedback and individual differences in language analytic ability and working memory. Modern Language Journal, 97, 634–654.Google Scholar
Li, S. (2015). The associations between language aptitude and second language grammar acquisition: A meta-analytic review of five decades of research. Applied Linguistics, 36, 385–408.Google Scholar
Li, S., Shintani, N., & Ellis, R. (2012). Doing meta-analysis in SLA: Practices, choices, and standards. Contemporary Foreign Language Studies, 384, 1–17.Google Scholar
Linck, J., et al. (2013). Hi-LAB: A new measure of aptitude for high-level language proficiency. Language Learning, 63, 530–566.Google Scholar
Linck, J., Osthus, P., Koeth, J., & Bunting, M. (2014). Working memory and second language comprehension and production: A meta-analysis. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 21, 861–883.Google Scholar
Lipsey, M., & Wilson, D. (2001). Practical meta-analysis. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
MacIntyre, P. (1995). How does anxiety affect second language learning? A reply to Sparks and Ganschow. The Modern Language Journal, 79, 90–99.Google Scholar
Mackey, A., Philp, J., Egi, Takako, Fujii, A., & Tatsumi, T. (2002). Individual differences in working memory, noticing of interactional feedback and L2 development. In Robinson, P. (Ed.), Individual differences and instructed language learning (pp. 181–209). Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company.Google Scholar
Masgoret, A., & Gardner, R. (2003). Attitudes, motivation, and second language learning: A meta-analysis of studies conducted by Gardner and associates. Language Learning, 53, 123–163.Google Scholar
McMullin, J. J. (1988). The effects of gender and the total physical response strategy on the retention of French commands by seventh-grade black students (Unpublished PhD dissertation). Temple University.Google Scholar
Meara, P. (2005). LLAMA Language Aptitude Tests. Swansea: Lognostics.Google Scholar
Messick, S. (1989). Validity. In Linn, R. L. (Ed.), Educational measurement (pp. 13–103). New York, NY: Macmillan.Google Scholar
Miyake, A., & Friedman, N. (1998). Individual differences in second language proficiency: Working memory as language aptitude. In Healy, A. & Bourne, L. (Eds.), Foreign language learning: Psycholinguistic studies on training and retention (pp. 339–364). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Myer, B. J. (1985). Relationships among selected measures of auditory foreign language aptitude and achievement, musical aptitude and experience, prior academic achievement, sex and handedness factors at the secondary school level (Unpublished PhD dissertation). Ohio State University.Google Scholar
Natelson, E. R. (1975). The predictive validity of each of the five parts of the modern language aptitude test: The effect of previous language training on MLAT scores: The correlation of MLAT scores and achievement in specific language groups (Unpublished PhD dissertation). Georgetown University.Google Scholar
Neisser, U., Boodoo, G., Bouchard, T., Boykin, A., Brody, N., Ceci, S., & Urbina, S. (1996). Intelligence: Knowns and unknowns. American Psychologist, 51, 77–101.Google Scholar
Norris, J. M., & Ortega, L. (2000). Effectiveness of L2 instruction: A research synthesis and quantitative meta-analysis. Language Learning, 50, 417–528.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Oswald, F., & Plonsky, L. (2010). Meta-analysis in second language research: Choices and challenges. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 30, 85–110.Google Scholar
Parry, T., & Child, J. (1990). Preliminary investigation of the relationship between VORD, MLAT and Language Proficiency. In Thomas, P. & Stansfield, C. (Eds.), Language aptitude reconsidered (pp. 30–66). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall Regents.Google Scholar
Petersen, C., & Al-Haik, A. (1976). The development of the Defence Language Aptitude Battery (DLAB). Educational and Psychological Measurement, 36, 369–380.Google Scholar
Phillips, S. K. (1988). Predictive validity for the modern language aptitude test (Unpublished PhD dissertation). Indiana University of Pennsylvania.Google Scholar
Pimsleur, P. (1966). Pimsleur Language Aptitude Battery (PLAB). San Diego: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.Google Scholar
Pimsleur, P., Reed, D., & Stansfield, C. (2004). Pimsleur Language Aptitude Battery (PLAB). N. Bethesda, MD: Second Language Testing.Google Scholar
Piske, T., MacKay, I., & Flege, J. (2001). Factors affecting degree of foreign accent in an L2: A review. Journal of Phonetics, 29, 191–215.Google Scholar
Plonsky, L., & Brown, D. (2015). Domain definition and search techniques in meta-analyses of feedback (Or why 18 meta-analyses of feedback have different results). Second Language Research, 31, 267–278.Google Scholar
Plonsky, L., & Oswald, F. (2014). How big is “big”? Interpreting effect sizes in L2 research. Language Learning, 64, 878–912.Google Scholar
Popham, J. (2000). Modern educational measurement. Needham, MA: Allyn and Bacon.Google Scholar
Rachlin, S. (2005). Reading, mathematics, language, second language aptitude scores and personality type as predictors of success in beginning second language study (Unpublished PhD dissertation). Hofstra University.Google Scholar
Ranta, L. (2002). The role of learners’ language analytic ability in the communicative classroom. In Robinson, P. (Ed.), Individual differences and instructed language learning (pp. 159–180). Amsterdam: John Benjamins.Google Scholar
Révész, A. (2012). Working memory and the observed effectiveness of recasts on different L2 outcome measures. Language Learning, 62, 93–132.Google Scholar
Robinson, P. (2001). Individual differences, cognitive abilities, aptitude complexes and learning conditions in second language acquisition. Second Language Research, 17, 368–392.Google Scholar
Robinson, P. (2002). Effects of individual differences in intelligence, aptitude and working memory on adult incidental SLA. In Robinson, P. (Ed.), Individual differences and instructed language learning (pp. 212–266). Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company.Google Scholar
Robinson, P. (2005). Cognitive abilities, chunk-strength, and frequency effects in implicit artificial grammar and incidental L2 learning: Replications of Reber, Walkenfield, and Hernstatd (1991) and Knowlton and Squire (1996) and their relevance for SLA. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 27, 235–268.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Roehr, K., & Gánem-Gutiérrez, G. (2009). The status of metalinguistic knowledge in instructed adult L2 learning. Language Awareness, 18, 165–181.Google Scholar
Ross, S., Yoshinaga, N., & Sasaki, M. (2002). Aptitude-exposure interaction effects on Wh-movement violation detection by pre-and-post-critical period Japanese bilinguals. In Robinson, P. (Ed.), Individual differences and instructed language learning (pp. 267–299). Amsterdam: John Benjamins.Google Scholar
Sachs, R. (2010). Individual differences and the effectiveness of visual feedback of reflexive binding in L2 Japanese (Unpublished PhD dissertation). Georgetown University.Google Scholar
Sáfár, A. & Kormos, J. (2008). Revisiting problems with foreign language aptitude. International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching, 46, 113–136.Google Scholar
Sasaki, M. (1996). Second language proficiency, foreign language aptitude, and intelligence: Quantitative and qualitative analyses. New York, NY: Peter Lang.Google Scholar
Seipp, B. (1990). Anxiety and academic performance: A meta-analysis of findings. Anxiety Research, 91, 27–41.Google Scholar
Sheen, Y. (2007). The effects of corrective feedback, language aptitude, and learner attitudes on the acquisition of English articles. In Mackey, A. (Ed.), Conversational interaction in second language acquisition (pp. 301–322). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Skehan, P. (2002). Theorizing and updating aptitude. In Robinson, P. (Ed.), Individual differences and instructed language learning (pp. 69–94). Amsterdam: John Benjamins.Google Scholar
Skehan, P. (2012). Language aptitude. In Gass, S. & Mackey, A. (Eds.), Handbook of second language acquisition (pp. 381–395). New York, NY: Routledge.Google Scholar
Snow, R. E. (1991). Aptitude-treatment interaction as a framework for research on individual differences in psychotherapy. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 59, 205–216.Google Scholar
Sparks, R. L., & Patton, J. (2013). Relations of L1 skills and L2 aptitude to L2 anxiety on the foreign language classroom anxiety scale. Language Learning, 63, 870–895.Google Scholar
Sparks, R. L., Ganschow, L., & Patton, J. (1995). Prediction of performance in first-year foreign language courses. Journal of Educational Psychology, 87, 638–655.Google Scholar
Sparks, R. L., Patton, J., Ganschow, L., & Humbach, N. (2009). Long-term relationships among early first language skills, second language aptitude, second language affect, and later second language proficiency. Applied Psycholinguistics, 30, 725–755.Google Scholar
Sparks, R. L., Patton, J., Ganschow, L., & Humbach, N. (2011). Subcomponents of second- language aptitude and second-language proficiency. Modern Language Journal, 95, 253–273.Google Scholar
Sparks, R. L., Patton, J., Ganschow, L., & Humbach, N. (2012). Relationships among L1 print exposure and early L1 literacy skills, L2 aptitude, and L2 proficiency. Reading and Writing, 25, 1599–1634.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sparks, R. L., Patton, J., Ganschow, L., Humbach, N., & Javorsky, J. (2006). Native language predictors of foreign language proficiency and foreign language aptitude. Annals of Dyslexia, 56, 129–160.Google Scholar
Sparks, R. L., Artzer, M., Ganschow, L., Siebenhar, D., Plageman, M., & Patton, J. (1998). Differences in native-language skills, foreign-language aptitude, and foreign-language grades among high-, average-, and low-proficiency foreign-language learners: Two studies. Language Testing, 15, 181–216.Google Scholar
Speciale, G., Ellis, N. C., & Bywater, T. (2004). Phonological sequence learning and short-term store capacity determine second language vocabulary acquisition. Applied Psycholinguistic, 25, 293–332.Google Scholar
Suzuki, Y., & DeKeyser, R. (2015) Comparing elicited imitation and word monitoring as measures of implicit knowledge. Language Learning, online. DOI: 10.1111/lang.12138 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thompson, A. (2013). The interface of language aptitude and multilingualism: Reconsidering the bilingual/multilingual dichotomy. Modern Language Journal, 97, 685–701.Google Scholar
Tobias, S. (1985). Test anxiety: Interference, defective skills, and cognitive capacity. Educational Psychologist, 20, 135–142.Google Scholar
Valentine, J., Pigott, T., & Rothstein, H. (2010). How many studies do you need? A primer on statistical power for meta-analysis. Journal of Educational and Behavioral Statistics, 35, 215–247.Google Scholar
Wasserman, J. (2012). A history of intelligence assessment: The unfinished tapestry. In Flanagan, D. & Harrison, P. (Eds.), Contemporary intellectual assessment: Theories, tests, and issues (pp. 3–55). New York, NY: The Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Wen, Z. (2015). Working memory in second language acquisition and processing: The phonological/executive model. In Wen, Z., Mailce, B., & McNeill, A. (Eds.), Working memory in second language acquisition and processing (pp. 41–62), Bristol, UK: Multilingual Matters.Google Scholar
Wesche, M., Edwards, H., & Wells, W. (1982). Foreign language aptitude and intelligence. Applied Psycholinguistics, 3, 127–140.Google Scholar
Westen, D., & Rosenthal, R. (2003). Quantifying construct validity: Two simple measures. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84, 608–618.Google Scholar
Williams, J. N. (2009). Implicit learning in second language acquisition. In Ritchie, W. & Bhatia, T. (Eds.), The new handbook of second language acquisition (pp. 319–353), Bingley, UK: Emerald Group Publishing Limited.Google Scholar
Winke, P. (2005). Individual differences in adult Chinese second language acquisition: The relationships between aptitude, memory, and strategies for language learning (Unpublished PhD dissertation). Georgetown University.Google Scholar
Winke, P. (2013). An investigation into second language aptitude for advanced Chinese language learning. Modern Language Journal, 97, 109–130.Google Scholar
Yoshizawa, K. (2002). Relationships among strategy use, foreign language aptitude, and second language proficiency: A structural equation modelling approach (Unpublished PhD dissertation). Temple University.Google Scholar
Zikmund, W., Babin, B., Carr, J., & Griffin, M. (2013). Business research methods. Mason, OH: Cengage Learning.Google Scholar
Supplementary material: File

Li supplementary material

Appendices A and B

Download Li supplementary material(File)
File 551.7 KB