Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-rcrh6 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-02T19:46:16.508Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Via Ascetica: a Papal Quandary

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  21 March 2016

Brenda M. Bolton
Brenda M. Bolton*
Affiliation:
Westfield College, University of London
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Extract

‘Rescue us O Lord Pope from barbaric power and subjugation to laymen’ was the cry of despair from the clerics of Grandmont which reached Pope Innocent III about the year 1215. It indicated the growth of the appeal to Rome which took place in the Cannon Law of the twelfth century. Many other examples of an increase in papal authority occurred at this time. The extension of papal jurisdiction is one of two important developments of twelfth- and thirteenth-century Christendom with which this paper will be concerned.

Type
Research Article
Information
Studies in Church History , Volume 22: Monks, Hermits and the Ascetic Tradition , 1985 , pp. 161 - 191
Copyright
Copyright © Ecclesiastical History Society 1985

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

1 ‘Eripe nos, Domini, de potestate barbarica et a servitute laicali’, Martène and Durand, Thesaurus I (Paris 1717) cols 845—7.

2 For general comments on appeals to the Curia and papal jurisdiction see Le Bras, G., Les institutions ecclésiastiques de la chrétienité médiévale, Histoire de l’Église 12 (Paris 1964) 1 Google Scholar; Southern, [R. W.], Western Society [and the Church in the Middle Ages,] (Harmondsworth 1970) pp. 104–17 Google Scholar and in particular Cheney, [C.R.], Innocent III [and England,] Papste und Papsttum, 9 (Stuttgart 1976) pp. 97–120 Google Scholar and Hourlier, J., L’Age Classique (1140–1378): Les Religieux, Histoire du Droit et des Institutions de l’Église en Occident, 10 (Paris 1974)Google Scholar.

3 McDonnell, E.W., ‘The Vita Apostolica: Diversity or Dissent?’ CH 24 (1955) pp. 15–31 Google Scholar; Olsen, G., ‘The Idea of the Ecclesia Primitiva in the Writings of the Twelfth-Century Canonists’, Traditio 25 (1969) pp. 61–81 Google Scholar; [L.K.] Little, Religious Poverty [and the Profit Economy in Medieval Europe] (London 1978); [C.H.] Lawrence, Medieval Monasticism (London 1984) pp. 125–45; [B.M.] Bolton, The Medieval Reformation (London 1983) pp. 18–32 and above all (M.-D.] Chenu, Nature, Man and Society [in the Twelfth Century: Essays on New Theological Perspectives in the Latin West,] trans J. Taylor and L.K. Little (Chicago 1968) pp. 239–46.

4 Ibid pp. 202–38. For further insights into some of these movements see M.B. Becker, Medieval Italy: Constraints and Creativity (Indiana 1981) and [H.] Leyser, Hermits and the New Monasticism: [A Study of Religious Communities in Western Europe 1000–1150] (London 1984).

5 Chadwick, O., Western Asceticism (Philadelphia 1958) pp. 13–31 Google Scholar; Chadwick, H., The Early Church, (Harmondsworth 1967)Google Scholar; [D.] Knowles, From Pachomius to Ignatius: [A Study in the Constitutional History of the Religious Orders] (Oxford 1966).

6 [M.] Maccarrone, ‘Primato Romano e Monasteri [dal Principio del Secolo XII ad Innocenzo III’,] in Istituzioni Monastiche e Istituzioni Canonicali in Occidente (1123–1215), Mendola (Milan 1980) pp. 49–132.

7 Ibid pp. 63–4. This principle, first enunciated by Gregory VII, reached its highest development with Innocent III. Apostolic protection was transformed into a papal institution, expressing the exercise of the pope’s jurisdiction over the whole Church.

8 ‘Religiosam vitam eligentibus, apostolicum convenit adesse praesidium’. For adiscussion of the use of this formula see M. Tangl, Die pàpstlichen Kanzleiord nungen von 1200–1500 (Innsbruck 1894) pp. 229–32.

9 Maccarrone, ‘Primato Romano e Monasteri’ p. 74.

10 Dubois, J., ‘Two Middle Irish Religious Anecdotes’, Speculum 3 (1928), 98–103 Google Scholar, at 101.

11 “Maccarrone, ‘Primato Romano e Monasteri’ pp. 74–5; Chenu, Nature, Man and Society pp. 225–7.

12 For a highly significant discussion of the implications of the development of the idea of protectio Sancii Petri see Maccarrone, ‘Primato Romano e Monasteri’ pp. 50–77.

13 [G.] Schreiber, Kurie una Kloster [im 12 Jahrhundert. Studien zur Privilegienmg, Verfassung und besonders zum Eigenkirchenwesen der vorfranzicanischen Orden vornehmlich auf Crund der Papsturkunden von Paschalis 11 bis auf Lucius III 1099–1181,] Kirchliche Abhandlungen 65–68, 2 vols (Stuttgart 1910) 1, pp. 47–55, 207–9.

14 [Die] Register [Innocenz’ III, Bd I: 1. Pontifikatsjahr 1198/9] edd O. Hageneder and A. Haidacher (Graz-Kõln 1964) 2a, p. 6. Letter of 9 January 1198 to all abbots, priors and religious of the kingdom of France.

15 Schreiber, Kurie und Kloster 1 pp. 62–3. For a series of valuable studies on the problems of eremitism see L’Eremitismo in Occidente nei Secoli XI e XII, Mendola 4 (Milan 1962) and Leyser, Hermits and the New Monasticism pp. 78–86.

16 From the vast range of literature, the following are particularly useful. A. Luchaire, Innocent III 6 vols (Paris 1904–8); H. Tillmann, Papst Innocenz’ III (Gõttingen 1954), now available as Pope Innocent III, trans W. Sax, Europe in the Middle Ages, Select Studies 12 (North Holland 1980); [M.] Maccarrone, Studi [su Innocenzo III,] Italia Sacra 17 (Padua 1972); Cheney, Innocent III; [W.] Imkamp, [Das] Kirchenbild Innocenz’ III [1198-1216),] Pãpste und Papsttum, 22 (Stuttgart ‘983); [S.] Sibilia, ‘L’Iconografia di Innocenzo IH’, BoUetino della Sezione di Anagni della Società Romana di Storia Patria 2 (Rome 1953) pp. 65–120; Ladner, G.B., Die Papstbildnisse des Altertums und des Mittelalters, 2 (Vatican City 1970) pp. 53–79 Google Scholar.

17 Brentano, [R.], Rome before Avignon: [A Social History of Thirteenth-Century Rome] (London 1974) p. 148 Google Scholar.

18 For a brief yet stimulating account of Innocent’s policies see Tierney, B., The Crisis of Church and State (New Jersey 1964) pp. 127–38 Google Scholar; Cheney, Innocent III pp. 1–10 and Bolton, The Medieval Reformation pp. 97–111.

19 ‘Nos enim, vos tamquam spéciales Ecclesie filios, per quos nomen Domini dignus et excellentius praedicatur’, Register I, 2a, p. 6. Letter of 9 January 1198.

20 Register 1, 176, pp. 262–3.

21 [U.] Berlière, ‘Innocent III et [la réorganisation des] monastères bénédictins’, RB 20–22 (1920) pp. 22–42, 145–59; Schmitz, P., Histoire de l’Ordre de Saint Benoit 3 (Maredsous 1948) pp. 42–55 Google Scholar; R. Brentano, Two Churches. England and Italy in the Thirteenth Century (Princeton 1968) p. 259 and Maccarrone, Studi pp. 223–6.

22 ‘Cum inter omnes religiosos nostri temporis viros Cisterciensis et Carthusiensis ordinum fratres magna per Dei gratiam polleant honéstate…’, PL 216 (1855) col 469. Letter of 11 October 1211.

23 COD (3 ed Bologna 1973) Canon 12 pp. 240–1; Maccarrone, Studi pp. 246–62.

24 For a discussion of such dangers see Grundmann, pp. 70–127; B.M. Bolton, ‘Poverty as Protest’, The Church in a Changing Society, Publications of the Swedish Society of Church History, New Series, 30 (Uppsala 1978) pp. 28–32; Leyser, Hermits and the New Monasticism pp. 18–24.

25 Gesta [Innocenta P.P.III,] PL 214 (1855) xvii-ccxxviii. F. Ehrle, Die Gesta Innocenta III im Verhaltnis zu den Regesten desselben Papstes (Heidelberg 1876) for a highly critical account of this work. For its revaluation and reappraisal, see Lefevre, Y., ‘Innocent III et son temps vus de Rome. Étude sur la biographie anonyme de ce pape’, Mélanges d’Archéologie et d’Histoire de l’École Française de Rome, 61 (Paris 1949) pp. 242-5 Google Scholard.

26 Ibid pp. 242–3; [M.] Maccarrone, [‘Innocenzo III,] prima del pontificato’, ASP 66 (1943) pp. 59–134 especially p. 60.

27 Gesta col xvii, I. His biographer remarks that he was well-grounded in liturgical chant and psalmody. ‘Exercitatus in cantilena et psalmodia’. Imkamp, Kirchenbild Innocenz’ III pp. 20–3; Maccarrone, ‘Prima del pontificato’ pp. 68–81.

28 Gesta col xvii, II. ‘Hie primum in Urbe, deinde Parisius, tandem Bononiae, scholasticis insudavit et super coaetaneos suos tarn in philosophica quam theologica disciplina proferii’. Imkamp, Kirchenbild Innocenz’ III pp. 23–46; K. Penning ton, ‘The legal education of Pope Innocent III’, Bulletin of Medieval Canon Law NS 4 (1974) pp. 70–7.

29 Lucius III (1181–1185). Maccarrone, ‘Prima del pontificato’ pp. 81–3.

30 Gesta col xviii, III. ‘Hunc sanctae memoriae Gregorius octavus papa, in subdiaconum ordinavit’. Gregory VIII (21 November-17 December 1187); Kehr, P., ‘Papst Gregor VIII als Ordensgriinder’, Miscellanea F. Ehrle, Studi e Testi 38, vol 2 (Rome 1924) pp. 248–76 Google Scholar; Maccarrone, ‘Prima del pontificato’ p. 83.

31 Clement III (1187–1191). ‘Et Clemens III papa promovit in diaconum cardinalem, vicesimum nonum aetatis annum agentem’, Gesta col xviii, III; Maccarrone, ‘Prima del pontificato’ p. 84.

32 Gesta cols xviii-iv, III, IV; Maccarrone, ‘Prima del pontificato’ pp. 81–91; Die Register Innocenz’ III, Bd II: 2. Pontifikatsjahr 1199/1200, edd O. Hageneder, W. Maleczek and A. Strnad (Rome-Vienna 1979), 94, pp. 198–201. For the repairs to this Church see Krautheimer, R., Rome: Profile of a City 312–1308 (Princeton 1980) p. 203 Google Scholar and M. Bonfioli, ‘La Diaconia dei SS Sergio e Bacco nel Foro Romano. Fonti e Problemi’, Rivista di Archeologia Cristiana 50 (Rome 1974) pp. 55–85.

33 PL 217 (1855) cols 702–46. [Lotharii Cardinalis (Innocenta III).] De Miseria [Humane Conditionis] ed M. -Maccarrone (Lucca 1955).

34 PL 217 cols 773–916; Imkamp, Kirchenbild Innocenz’ III pp. 46–53; Maccarrone, ‘Innocenzo III, teologo della eucarestia’, Studi pp. 341–65.

35 PL 217 cols 922–68; Imkamp, Kirchenbild Innocenz’ III pp. 53–63. For a discussion of Innocent’s significant literary and administrative activity during his cardinalate, see Maccarrone, ‘Prima del pontificato’ pp. 86–9.

36 PL 217 cols 968–1130: Maccarrone, ‘Prima del pontificato’ pp. 67–71.

37 Sermons: PL 217 cols 309–690; Letters: Cheney, C.R., ‘The Letters of Pope Innocent III’ in Medieval Texts and Studies (Oxford 1973) pp. 16–38 Google Scholar with a particularly significant bibliography pp. 37–8; Register I and II; Decretals: Corpus Iuris Canonici ed A. Friedberg 2 vols (Leipzig 1879) 2.

38 Gesta XLI: he inveighed against all forms of avarice and cupidity; refused all forms of gift and bribery; reformed the Chancery and decreed that no official had any claim to fees except scribes and hullators who were to keep to a fixed scale of charges.

39 On his election as Pope, he had removed all the precious furnishings of the papal chambers, substituting simple wooden or glass vessels for gold and silver, ibid CXLVIII and having the money changers’ tables taken from the kitchen entrance, ibid XLI.

40 His own meals were limited to three courses, those of his chaplains to two and lay servants were replaced by clerics, ibid CXLVIII. Under Innocent, there were about fifty capellani or chaplains who also belonged to the Pope’s familia and were fed from the papal kitchens, ibid CXLVI. See Elze, R., ‘Die päpstliche Kapelle’, Zeitschrift der Savigny Stiftung für Rechtsgeschichte Kanonistische Abieilung 38 (1950) pp. 145–204 Google Scholar; Ullmann,, W. The Growth of Papal Government in the Middle Ages (2 ed London 1965) p. 331 Google Scholar n 4.

41 The Chapel of St Laurence at the Lateran, known as the Sancta Sanctorum for its wealth of relics, was so rich tarn in materia quam in forma that its like had never before been seen, Gesta CXLV; [S.J.P.] Van Dijk and [J. Hazelden] Walker, [The] Origins of the Modern Roman Liturgy (London 1960) pp. 91–5; G. Marangoni, Istoria della Sancta Sanctorum (Rome 1747); Lauer, P., Le Palais de Latran. Étude historique et archéologique (Paris 1911)Google Scholar.

42 [Chronica Romanorum pontificum et imperatorum ac de rebus in Apulia gestis (781–1228) auctore] ignoto monacho Cistercensi ed A. Gaudenzi in Società Napoletana di Saneia Patria, 1, Cronache (Naples 1888) p. 34.

43 Ibid p. 34. ‘Assumpsit sibi vestos religiosas, id est de lana alba et pelles agniculas’.

44 Ibid ‘instituit etiam universale cenobium monalium Rome, in quo omnes moniales conveniant, nec eis progredi liceat’.

45 Hampe, [K.], [‘Eine Schilderung des Sommeraufenthaltes der Römischen Kurie unter] Innocenz’ III in Subiaco 1202’, Historische Vierteljahrsschrift 8 (Leipzig 1905) pp. 509–3 Google Scholar 5.

46 Van Dijk and Walker, Origins of the Modern Roman Liturgy pp. 97, 267–8 and Appendix 14b pp. 462–4.

47 Cheney, ‘Letters of Pope Innocent III’ pp. 22–9.

48 Ibid p. 29.

49 Ibid pp. 31–4; Brentano, Rome before Avignon pp. 150–3.

50 For the suggestion that this work was completed at the beginning of 1195, Maccarrone, De Miseria, Praefatio XXXVII. ‘Ergo licet assere opus De Miseria, a Lothario completum esse initio anni 1195, nempe inter calendas Ianuarias vel diem Decembris anni 1194 … atque diem 13 Aprilis 1195’.

51 Van Dijk and Walker, Origins of the Modern Roman Liturgy p. 91.

52 Brentano, Rome before Avignon p. 151.

53 Maccarrone, De Miseria pp. 7–36 especially pp. 20–7.

54 Ibid pp. 39–72, especially pp. 39–43, 59–62. For law suits and payment for justice, compare Gesta XLI and CXLVII. His biographer witnesses that the pope ‘inter omnes pestes, habuit venalitatem exosam’, ibid XLI.

55 Maccarrone, De Miseria pp. 69–72.

56 Ibid pp. 75–98.

57 Maccarrone, ‘Prima del pontificato’ pp. 102–4, for a discussion of possible sources and influences.

58 Brentano, Rome before Avignon p. 151.

59 Ibid pp. 150–4.

60 Maccarrone, ‘Prima del pontificato’ pp. 103–10 and especially 107–8. ‘Si vede questo dall’influenza, veramente notevole, che il De Miseria ebbe sugli altri suoi scritti’.

61 Brentano, Rome before Avignon p. 150.

62 Among numerous articles on Grandmont, the most useful are [A.]Lecler, ‘Histoire de l’Abbaye de Grandmont’, B]ulletin de la] S]ociété] Archéologique et] H] istorique du] L[imousin] 58 (1908) pp. 44–94; and the following, all by J. Becquet, ‘Les institutions de l’ordre de Grandmont au moyen âge’, R[evue] M[abillon] 42 (1952) pp. 31–42; ‘Les premiers coutumier de l’ordre de Grandmont’, RM 43 (1956) pp. 127–37; ‘L’“Institution”: premier coutumier de l’ordre de Grandmont’, RM 46 (1956) pp. 15–32; ‘La règle de Grandmont’, BSAHL 87 (1958–60) pp. 9–36; ‘La première crise de l’ordre de Grandmont’, Ibid pp. 283–324; Scriptores Ordinis Grandmontensis, ed J. Becquet, CC, Continuatio Medievalis 8 (Turnholt 1968); ‘Etienne de Muret’, Dictionnaire de Spiritualité 4 (Paris 1961) cols 1504–14; ‘Gerard Ithier’, ibid 6 (1967) cols 275–6; ‘Le Bullaire de l’ordre de Grandmont’, RM 46 (1956) 1–75 pp. 82–93, 156–68; ibid 4.7 (1957) 76–93d pp. 33–43, 245–7; Addenda et Corrigenda, ibid 53 (1963) pp. 111–33, 137–160. Abbreviated as BUL.

63 Chronicon B. Iterii Armarii Monasterii S. Marcialis ed H. Duplès-Agier, Société de l’histoire de France (Paris 1874) pp. 30–129 especially p. 62. Bernard Ithier (1163–1225), novice at Saint-Martial in 1177, ordained deacon in 1185 and priest in 1189, held the offices of treasurer, sacristan and librarian (1204). As he only left the Abbey of Saint-Martial at rare intervals and even then on almost exclusively religious journeys, his presence at Grandmont in 1187 seems of particular significance.

64 Ibid p. 62. ‘Ego presens in capitulo cum hoc fieret, et Octavianus, episcopus Ostiensis et Hugo de Nonans et Lotharius, qui postea Innocentius papa IIIus meruit nuncupari, et Poncius, Clarmontensis episcopus’.

65 Becquet, ‘La première crise’ p. 298. On the general institution of laybrothers or conversi see Hallinger, K., ‘Woher kommen die Laienbrüder, ASOC 12 (1956) pp. 1–104 Google Scholar; J.O. Ducourneau, ‘De l’institution et des us des convers dans l’ordre de Cîteaux (xiie et xiiie siècles)’, in Saint Bernard et son temps, 2 vols (Dijon 1928–9) II pp. 139–201; J. S. Donnelly, The Decline of the Medieval Cistercian Laybrotherhood, Fordham University Studies, Series 3 (New York 1949). For a contemporary comparative view, see Knowles, M.D., ‘The revolt of the lay brothers of Sempringham’, EHR 1 (1935) pp. 465–87 Google Scholar and Foreville, R., ‘La crise de l’ordre de Sempringham au xiie siècle: nouvelle approche du dossier des frères lais’, Anglo-Norman Studies 6 (Woodbridge 1983) pp. 39–57 Google Scholar.

66 Warichez, J., Étienne de Tournai et son temps (Tournai-Paris 1937) p. 54 Google Scholar n 50. Stephen, Bishop of Tournai (1192–1203). Becquet, ‘La première crise’ p. 297.

67 Ibid pp. 301–2. Prior William de Treignac (1170–1187). For a discussion of his priorate see ibid pp. 291–9.

68 Chronicon B. Iterii p. 62. ‘Grandimontenses gravi dissentione periclantur, ita quod W. prior cum ducentis clericis et xiii laicis de domo sua prosiliens. Rome obiit peregrinus’.

69 Becquet, ‘La première crise’ p. 317.

70 PL 214 (1855) cols 1107–8; Potthast I, 1772 p. 155; BUL 46b, 22 November 1202. For another almost contemporary view of this crisis, see The Historia Occidentalis of Jacques de Vitry, ed J.F. Hinnebusch, SpicFr 17 (1972) pp. 124–7.

71 Privilege of 27 February 1202. The whole text is edited in Lecler, ‘Histoire de l’Abbaye de Grandmont’, BSAHL 58 (1908) pp. 73–6; abbreviated version, PL 214 cols 945–8 and BUL 38–53 and 53B-61.

72 Becquet, ‘La première crise’ p. 324; [M.H.] Vicaire, Saint Dominic [and his Times] trans K. Pond (London 1964) pp. 310–11.

73 For a general discussion of the criticism of eremitism, see G. Morin, ‘Rainaud l’ermite et Ives de Chartres. Un episode de la crise de cénobitisme au xic-xiic siècle’, RB 40 (1928) 00 99–115 and Leclercq, J., ‘Le poème de Payen Bolotin contre les faux ermites’, ibid 73 (1958) pp. 52–84 Google Scholar. For accessible accounts of the lifestyle at Grandmont see Lackner, [B.], [The] Eleventh-Century Background [of Citeaux] Cistercian Studies Series 8 (Washington 1972) pp. 196–203 Google Scholar and Little, Religious Poverty pp. 79–83.

74 Regula Venerabilis Viri Stephani Muretensis, CC 8 p. 66; Little, Religious Poverty p. 80; Chenu, Nature, Man and Society p. 239.

75 Becquet, ‘La règle de Grandmont’ pp. 11–15; PL 204 (1855) cols 1136–75.

76 Becquet, ‘La règle de Grandmont’ pp. 15–30 and ‘L”lnstitution”: premier coutumier de l’ordre de Grandmont’ pp. 15–32.

77 Ibid pp. 18–21; ‘La règle de Grandmont’ pp. 35–6; PL 204 (1855) col 1151 cap XLVI ‘Quod fratres in cella permaneant’.

78 [Walter] Map, De Nugis Curialium ed and trans M.R. James, revised by C.N.L. Brooke and R.A.B. Mynors, (Oxford 1983) pp. 52–5, 112–5. ‘Animals they have none, except bees; these Stephen allowed because they do not deprive neighbours of food; and their produce is collected publicly once a year all together’. PL 204 cols 1142–3 cap VI ‘De bestiis non habendis’.

79 Becquet, ‘La règle de Grandmont’ pp. 16–19; PL 204 cols 1136–62; Lackner, Eleventh-Century Background pp. 200–1.

80 Liber de Doctrina, CC 8 pp. 3–62 caps XV and LIX; BUL 13; PL 202 (1855) col 1416; BUL 21; PL 204 col 1375; Becquet, ‘La première crise pp. 287, 300.

81 PL 204 cols 1143, 1145; Map, De Nugis Curialium pp. 114–5.

82 Knowles, From Pachomius to Ignatius p. 33; Map, De Nugis Curialium pp. 113—4.

83 Becquet, ‘La première crise pp. 295–6 and n 45 p. 295. An obituary fragment from Grandmont e. 1140–1150 bears witness to a ratio of one priest to every seven or eight conversi. Some degree of balance seems to have been restored by the early thirteenth century with a proportion then of one priest to two or three lay brothers being considered as an optimum, ibid, pp. 295, 323. See also C. Dereine, ‘L’obituaire primitif de l’ordre de Grandmont’, BSAHL 87 (1958–60) pp. 325–31 in which he deduces from an examination of Paris BN Lat MS 1138 a precise figure for the proportion of laymen to clerics of one hundred and thirty to twenty three and dates the manuscript to c. 1120–1160.

84 BUL 12, 19, 21, 22, 24; Becquet, ‘La première crise’ p. 316; Martène and Durand, Thesaurus I, cols 845–7; PL 202 col 1415, Bull of Urban III, 14 July 1186, ‘Liceat vobis unius campanae pulsatione competentibus horis fratres vestros de laboribus ad ecclesiam convocare’.

85 Becquet, ‘La première crise’ p. 283–5; Knowles, From Pachomius to Ignatius pp. 16–21.

86 Walther voti de Vogelweide: Werke ed J. Schaefer (Darmstadt 1972) p. 226. ‘Da weinte ein klôsenaere, er klagete gote sîniu leit: Owê der bâbest ist ze june: hilf, hêrre, dîner kristenheit!’ ‘Far away in a cell, I heard much lamentation. A hermit was weeping there: he was lamenting his sufferings to God: Alas, the Pope is too young: O Lord, help your Christendom!’ The date is probably shortly after 1201. I am grateful to Dr W.J. Jones for this reference and its translation.

87 Becquet, ‘La première crise’ p. 316.

88 Ibid p. 322–4.

89 Ibid p. 324.

90 BUL 40, 41, 44, 45; Becquet, ‘La première crise’ p. 319; Leder, ‘Histoire de l’Abbaye de Grandmont’, BSAHL 58 pp. 73–6.

91 Ibid p. 74; BUL 40, 41, 42, 45, 46, 53 and especially 54 for the Bull of 24 December 1211 in which Innocent III confided the reform of Grandmont to the Archbishop of Bourges and the Cistercian abbots of La Pré and Varennes.

92 Becquet, ‘La première crise’ p. 324.

93 Cheney, Innocent III p. 180.

94 Schmitz, P., Histoire de l’Ordre de Saint Benoît 3 (Maredsous 1948) pp. 42–55 Google Scholar; Berlière, ‘Innocent III et les monastères bénédictins’, RB 20–22 (1920) pp. 22–42, !45-59; Maccarrone, Studi pp. 223–46.

95 Berlière, ‘Innocent III et les monastères bénédictins’ p. 22.

96 Ibid pp. 23–6.

97 Knowles, Front Pachomius to Ignatius p. 6.

98 Register I, 445, p. 668. Letter of 5 December 1198 to Raymond, bishop of Périgueux ‘Et quoniam ubique presentía corporali adesse non possumus’.

99 Berlière, ‘Innocent III et les monastères bénédictins’ pp. 27–33.

100 Ibid p. 28.

101 Schreiber, Kurie und Kloster 1 pp. 207–09 for some discussion of the emancipation of monasteries from episcopal authority.

102 Berlière, ‘Innocent III et les monastères bénédictins’ pp. 29–31.

103 Ibid pp. 33–5.

104 Register I, 161, pp. 229–30. Letter of 30 April 1198, ‘Viris religiosis, et his praecipue qui beati Benedictì regulam sunt professi, non credimus expediré, ut, otio claustrali postposito, contra instituía sui ordinis discurrant per curias seculares aut secularibus negotiis involvantur’.

105 Rule of St Benedict ed J. McCann (London 1952) Cap I, De generibus monachorum, pp. 14–17, semper vagi et numquam stabiles.

106 M. A. Dimier, ‘Saint Bernard et le droit en matière de Transitus’, RM 43 (1953) pp. 48–82; G. Picasso, ‘San Bernardo e il ‘transitus’ dei monachi’, in Studi su S. Bernardo di Chiaravalle: Nell’ottavo centenario della Canonizzazione (Rome 1975) pp. 182–200.

107 Berlière, ‘Innocent III et les monastères bénédictins’ p. 35; PL 215 cols 874–5.

108 Ibid, ‘Cum ergo dilectus fîlius R. monachus vester, ad fratres Cisterciensis ordinis transmigraverit, non ut ordini vestro aliquatenus derogaret, sed ut apud eos vitam duceret arctionem’. For an interesting discussion of the problems of transfer from Grandmont to Cîteaux, see Becquet, ‘La première crise’ pp. 295–6.

109 Berlière, ‘Innocent III et les monastères bénédictins’ pp. 35–8.

110 Ibid p. 39; [L.V.] Delisle, ‘Itinéraire d’Innocent III, [dressé d’après les actes de ce pontife’,] BEC (1857) pp. 500–34 especially p. 509.

111 Berlière, ‘Innocent III et les monastères bénédictins’ pp. 37, 149–56.

112 Ibid p. 39. On monasteries in general in the Patrimony see Monasticon Italiae, I, Roma e Lazio ed F. Caraffa (Cesena 1981) and for a social and economie background to the region, see the important study by P. Toubert, Les Structures du Latium Medieval: Le Latium Méridional et la Sabine du ix à la fin du xii siècle, 2 vols (Rome 1973).

113 Hampe, ‘Innocenz’ III in Subiaco 1202’ pp. 509–35; Monasticon Italiae 1 pp. 172–5; [Muratori,] Chronicon Sublacense [593-1369,] 24, VI, ed R. Morghen (Bologna 1927) pp. 34–7.

114 Hampe, ‘Innocenz’ III in Subiaco 1202’ pp. 519–21. This was the former Sublaqueum, site of the imposing imperial villa and the three artificial lakes created by damming the river Anio and only finally destroyed in 1305.

115 Chronkon Sublacense p. 34. ‘In illis diebus venit dominus Innocencius papa tercius … qui personaliter cum paucis cardinalibus venit ad monasterium, visitavit et pluribus diebus stetit; predicavit ibidem et monasterium reformavit…’.

116 Monasticon Italiae I pp. 172–3; Grégoire le Grand: Dialogus I, Sources chrétiennes, 251 (Paris 1978); Lawrence, Medieval Monasticism p. 19.“

117 PL 214 col 1062, September 1202. ‘Accedentes causa devotionis ad locum quern beatus Benedictus suae conversionis primordio consecravit, et invenientes vos ibi secundum institutionem ipsius laudabiliter Domino famulari …’. Berlière, ‘Inno-cent III et les monastères bénédictins’ p. 40.

118 Chronicon Sublacense pp. 34–6 for the whole text; Potthast I, 1720, I September 1202. ‘Priori et fratribus iuxta specum b. Benedicti regularem vitam servantibus sex libras usualis monetae de camera b. Petri singulis annis percipiendas concedit’. Also Potthast I, 1835, 24 February 1203.

119 Chronicon Sublacense p. 36 ‘…et pro vestibus monachorum emendis xx libras presencialiter elargimur, planetam de cocco bis tincto Deo et beato Benedicto ad altaris officium offerentes’. For details of the fresco by? Magister Conxolus depicting Innocent III with St Benedict and this privilege at the Sacro Speco, see Sibilla, ‘L’Iconografia di Innocenzo III’ pp. 75–8 and Ladner, Die Papstbildnisse pp. 68–72.

120 Monasticon Italiae I pp. 174–5; PL 214 cols 1064–6; Berlière, ‘Innocent III et les monastères bénédictins’ p. 40.

121 Potthast I, 1734, ‘Abbati et conventui Sublacensi scribit de quibusdam vitiis emendandis, quae inter monachos illius coenobii irrepserant’. Dated September 1202.

122 Chronicon Sublacense p. 35 ‘quia abbas et prior circa correptionem delinquentium erant nimium negligentes’. Also PL 214 col 1066.

123 RSB Cap XXXIÍI, Siquid debeant monachi proprium habere, pp. 84–7; Chroni-con Sublacense p. 35.

124 Corpus Iuris Canonici ed A. Friedberg 2 vols (Leipzig r 879) II, Decretal of Gregory IX, III, 3s, 6, cols 599–600. De statu monachorum et canonicorum regularium. PL 214 cols 1064–66; Potthast I, 1734; Chronkon Sublacense pp. 34-tí, Cum ad monasterium sublacensem personaliter venissemus …’.

125 Ibid p. 36. ‘Nee extimet abbas quod super habenda proprietate possit cum aliquo monacho dispensare, quoniam abdicatio proprietatis sicut et custodia castitatis adeo est annexa regule monachali ut contra earn ne summus pontifex possit licenciam indulgere’.

126 Maccarrone, Studi p. 225.

127 Ignoto monacho Cistercensi p. 34. ‘Mccviij idem papa mense Iulii apud Sanctum Germanum in terra sancti Benedicti curiam tenuit’; PL cols 1593–4; Delisle, ‘Itinéraire d’Innocent III’ p. 521.

128 For a recent general background to Monte Cassino, see L. Fabiani, La terra di S. Benedetto: studio storico-giuridico sull’abbazia di Montecassino àell’viii al xiìi secolo 3 vols, Miscellanea Cassinese, vols 33–34 (Montecassino 1968) and voi 42 (Montecassino 1980). More specific is the important work by H.E.J. Cowdrey, The Age of Abbot Desiderius: Montecassino, the Papacy and the Normans in the Eleventh and Early Twelfth Centuries (Oxford 1983) especially pp. 1–45.

129 Potthast I, 3470; Berlière, ‘Innocent III et les monastères bénédictins’ pp. 40–1.

130 Potthast I, 374; PL 21$ cols 1593–1000.

131 Ibid cols 1593–4.

132 Ibid; Berlière, ‘Innocent III et les monastères bénédictins’ p. 41.

133 PL 217 cols 249–53; L. Tosti, Storia della badia di Monte Cassino, 3 vols (Naples 1842–3) 2 pp. 289–92.

134 Ibid p. 289; Potthast I, 4996, ‘Ad monasterii Casinensis reformationem plura capitula statuit’, 20 September 1215.

135 Berlière, ‘Innocent III et les monastères bénédictins’ pp. 149–51.

136 PL 214 col 168, ‘… gaudemus plurimum et electionis canonicae apostolicum libenter impertimur assensum’.

137 Knowles, From Pachomius to Ignatius p. 6.

138 PL 214 cols 255–6 speaks of forcible entry into Reading Abbey; PL 21s cols 1175–6 tells of a recruit taken to the monks of Clairvaux while ill and PL 214 cols 429–30 from Pisa ‘unde multa mala noscuntur saepius provenire, cum infirmi ad monasterium iam translati et emissa professione, postquam de infirmitatibus convaluerint, habitum religionis abjiciant et ad propria revertantur’.

139 Berlière, ‘Innocent III et les monastères bénédictins’ p. 156.

140 See the important study by Maccarrone, Studi pp. 226–46; also U. Berlière, ‘Les chapitres généraux de l’Ordre de S. Benoît’ RB 18 (1901) pp. 364–98; ‘Innocent III et les monastères bénédictins’ pp. 156–9; Cheney, Innocent III pp. 231–4.

141 PL 214 cols 1173–4, ‘monasteria per Tusciam, Marchiani et ducatum Spoletanum constituta, nullo medio ad Romanum Ecclesiam pertinentia’; Maccarrone, Studi pp. 328–30.

142 Ibid pp. 228–34; Cheney, Innocent III pp. 231–5. These provincial chapters were to be held at Perugia and Piacenza for Northern and Central Italy, at Paris, Limoges and Cluny for the kingdom of France and in London for all English monasteries. Notable omissions were Rome and Upper and Lower Lazio, for which the Pope provided directly, the whole of Southern Italy, Germany, the Iberian peninsula, Ireland, Scotland, Scandinavia including the kingdom of Denmark and Hungary.

143 Maccarrone, Studi pp. 234–5.

144 Ibid pp. 241–2.

145 Cheney, Innocent III p. 233.

146 PL 215 col 1490; Potthast I, 3539; Maccarrone, Studi p. 242.

147 18 January 1206, PL 215 cols 775-tí; Potthast I, 2663; Maccarrone, Studi pp. 244–6.

148 Cheney, Innocent III p. 233.

149 PL 215 cols 775–6.

150 PL 215 cols 1128–9, 17 March 1207; Potthast I, 3045. Kirkham, Guisborough, Bridlington and Newburgh are all specified by name.

151 PL 216 col 312, 20 August 1210; Potthast I, 4067 ‘ut semel in anno capitulum célèbrent … ac de quarto in quartum annum apostolorum limina visitent’.

152 COD (3 ed Bologna 1973) Canon 12 pp. 240–1; Maccarrone, SíHíÍí pp. 246–62.

153 Ibid p. 248.

154 For a magisterial introduction to the Cistercian Order, see Lawrence, Medieval Monasticism pp. 146–66. I am especially indebted to this work. Also Knowles, From Pachomius to Ignatius pp. 23–30; Little, Religious Poverty pp. 90–6.

155 J.B. Mahn, L’Ordre Cistercien et son gouvernement (Paris 1951).

156 F. Van der Meer, Atlas de l’Ordre Cistercien (Amsterdam-Brussels 1965) and F. Vongrey and F. Hervay, ‘Notes critiques sur l’Atlas de l’Ordre Cistercien’, A SOC 23 (1967) pp. 115–52.

157 Canivez, I (Louvain 1933); Lawrence, Medieval Monasticism p. 160.

158 B.M. Bolton, ‘The Cistercians in Romana’, SCH 13 pp. 169–81 especially pp.170-3.

159 Lawrence, Medieval Monasticism p. 147.

160 Maccarrone, ‘Primato Romano e Monasteri’ pp. 75–107 for a wide-ranging study of papal privileges to the Cistercian Order.

161 Severest critic of all was Walter Map, De Nugis Curialium pp. 85–113 who calls them the Jews of Europe.

162 Maccarrone, ‘Primato Romano e Monasteri’ pp. 80–2 especially n 101.

163 Ibid pp. 106–7.

164 I Cistercensi e il Lazio, Atti delle giornate di studio dell’Istituto di Storia dell’Arte dell’Università di Roma, 17–21 Maggio 1977 (Rome 1978); Monasticon Italiae I pp. 104–5. The new altar at Fossanova was consecrated by Innocent III on 19 June 1208, Potthast I, 3465 and he gave one hundred pounds ‘pro consummatione aedificii ejusdem ecclesiae’, Gesta CXLIV; Casamari was given two hundred ounces of gold pro fabrica ipsius, ibid but the building was only completed in 1217 and consecrated by Honorius III. See P. Pressutti, Regesta Honorii Papae III 2 vols (Rome 1888-95) I p. i}4; F. Farina e B. Fornari, L’architettura cistercense e l’abbazìa di Casamari (Frosinone 1978); Maccarrone, Studi p. 224; PL 216 col 21.

165 Ignoto monacho Cistercensi p. 36. ‘Sepultus est in Urbe Perusii provinde Tuscie: ad cuius tumulum, sicut dicitur, ceci, maniaci et aliis infirmitatibus detenti Deo favente sanati sunt’.

166 Caesarii Heisterbacensis Monachi Ordinis Cisterciensis Dialogus Miraculorum, ed J. Strange 2 vols (Kõln 1851) 2 Cap VI pp. 7–8.

167 Radulphi de Coggeshall Chronicon Anglicanum, ed J. Stevenson, RS (London 1875) pp. 130–3.

168 Chronica Minor Auctore Minorità Erphordiensi, ed O. Holder-Egger, MGH, SS, 24, p. 196, ‘quidam abbas… Cysterciensis, veniens cum suis ad curiam Romanam, qui cepit sompnum meridie in prato ante Perusium, viditque visionem hunc habens modum. Vidit, inquam, Ilie abbas in sompno ad orientalem plagam Dominum sedentem in excelso throno, faciem habentem versus occasum, circumstante exercitu angelorum in prato; viditque ab occidentali parte eiusdem prati hominem toto corpore nudum, sed Ínfula pontificali decoratum, currentem velocissime versus sedentem in throno et alta voce clamantem: ‘Miserere mihi misero, misericordissime Deus’! Et vidit, quod insequebatur ilium currentem magnus draco subito persequens eum, ut devoraret ipsum; et veniens ante sedentem in throno alta voce draco clamavit: ‘Iuste iudica, Iustissime iudex’. Et cum hoc abbas vidisset et audisset, protinus evigilavit, et visio disparuit, nec illius disceptacionis exitum ullatenus scire potuit. Cumque abbas ascendisset in civitatem Perusii, que in monte sita est, audivit sonitum quasi campanarum et luctum plangencium et voces lamentancium et dicencium: ‘Heu dominus papa Innocencius defunctus est’.

169 Thomas de Cantimpré, Vita Lutgardis Virgine ed G. Henschenius, ASB, 3 June (Antwerp 1701) p. 245–7.

170 Ibid, ‘Tres causae sunt, quare sic crucior: per has autem eram dignissimus aeterno supplicio tradi: sed per intercessionem piissimae Virginis Mariae cui monasterium aedificavi, in fine poenitu et aeternam mortem evasi’.

171 Maccarrone, ‘Primato Romano e Monasteri’ p. 112.

172 AW pp. 125–31; COD, Canon 55 pp. 260 and Canon 57, p. 261; Cheney, , ‘A letter of Pope Innocent III and the Lateran decree on Cistercian Tithe-paying’, Cîteaux Commentarti Cistercienses (1962) pp. 146–51 Google Scholar.

173 Register I, 302, pp. 430–33, 343. p. 513. 358, pp. 538–40; Potthast I, 335,‘Abbatem de Sambucino Siculis verbum Dei praedicantem eosque ad obsequium crucifixi citantem pro excusato habeant’.

174 Register I, 257, pp. 488–90; Potthast I, 913 and 915, 28 and 30 December 1199.

175 Maccarrone, ‘Primato Romano e Monasteri’ pp. 112–3.

176 Canivez, I p. 243 n55; PL 214 cols 1107–08, ‘Eligeremus enim potius paucos offendi, quam totum ordinem aboleri’.

177 Ibid. ‘Occasionem scandali et dissensionis materiam praecipue fugientes, ne forte, sicut Grandimontenses, in derisum et fabulum incidatis’.

178 Maccarrone, ‘Primato Romano e Monasteri’ p. 122.

179 Register I, 398, p. 597.

180 Potthast I, 1026; [M.H.] Vicaire, [‘Vie Commune et Apostolat Missionaire. Innocent III et] la Mission de Livonie’, in Mélanges M-D. Chenu, Bibliothèque Thomiste 37, (Paris 1967) pp. 451–66; Maccarrone, Studi, pp. 262–72. Albert of Buxhoven, Bishop of Riga (1199–1229); Theodore of Treyden (d. 1219).

181 Maccarrone, Studi pp. 267–70.

182 Canivez, I p. 251; Maccarrone, ‘Primato Romano e Monasteri’ p. 123 and n224.

183 PL 215 cols 1009–11; Potthast I, 2901, 27 October 1206; PL 216 cols 315–6; Potthast I, 4074; Henry, Archbishop of Gniezno and the monks Christian and Philip, 4 September 1210.

184 PL 216, cols 668–70, ‘olim de nostra licentia inceperunt seminare in partibus Prussiae verbum Dei’; Maccarrone, ‘Primato Romano e Monasteri’ p. 124.

185 Ibid; RSB Cap I.

186 PL 216 col 669.

187 Canivez, I p. 414 n52. ‘Taliter temperet rem gerendam, ut et summo pontifici satisfiat, nee rigor Ordinis enervetur’.

188 Maccarrone, ‘Primato Romano e Monasteri’ p. 130.

189 Bull of 19 April, 1201 printed in Maccarrone, Studi Appendix 3, pp. 334–7.

190 Vicaire, ‘La Mission de Livonie’ p. 459; Corpus luris Canonici, ed A. Friedberg, II, p. 451.

191 Maccarrone, Studi p. 268; Vicaire, ‘La Mission de Livonie’ pp. 455–6.

192 Ibid pp. 460–1.

193 Maccarrone, Studi p. 334, ‘volens hec moderna tempora conformae prioribus et fidem catholicam propagae’.

194 C. Thouzellier, ‘La Pauvreté, arme contre l’Albigéisme en 1206’ in Hérésie et Hérétiques, Storia e Letteratura 116 (Rome 1969) pp. 189–203; B.M. Bolton, ‘Fulk of Toulouse: the Escape that Failed’, SCH 12 pp. 83–93 and B. Hamilton, Monastic Reform, Catharism and the Crusades (900–1300) (London 1979).

195 Maccarrone, ‘Primato Romano e Monasteri’ p. 124.

196 Maccarrone, Studi pp. 278–300.

197 Bolton, B.M., ‘Innocent Ill’s treatment of the Humiliati’, SCH 8 pp. 73–82 Google Scholar; Guy of Montpellier, 22 April 1198, Register I, 97, pp. 141–44; Potthast I, 96 and 102; Hospital of Santa Maria in Sassia, 18 June 1204, PL 215 cols 376–80; Potthast I, 2248; John de Matha and the Order of Trinitarians, Register I, 252, pp. 354–5; Potthast I, 483, 21 May 1198.

198 Meersseman, G.G. – E. Adda, ‘Una comminuta di penitenti rurali in S. Agostino dal n88 al 1236’, RHE 49 (1954) pp. 343–90 Google Scholar; Bernard Prim and his penitential community, PL 216 cols 289–93; Potthast I, 4014, 14 June 1210; PL 216 cols 648–50; Potthast I, 4567, 23 July 1212, sub magisterio et regimine Domini nostri Jesu Christi ac piisimi vicarii eius papae Innocentii et successorum eius’.

199 Matanic, A, ‘Papa Innocenzo III di fronte a S. Domenico e a S. Francesco’ Antonianum 35 (1960) pp. 508–27 Google Scholar.

200 Grandmami, pp. 127–56; Maccarrone, Studi pp. 300–06.

201 Ibid p. 301.

202 Ibid pp. 302–04; Grundmann, pp. 127–35 especially 11115 pp. 130–31.

203 Opuscula sanai patris Francisai, Bibliotheca Franciscana Ascetica Medii Aevii, I (2 ed Quaracchi 1941) p. 79. From St Francis’s Testament, ‘Et ego paucis verbis et simpliciter/ecí scribi; et dominus papa confirmavit michi’.

204 Maccarrone, Studi p. 304, 324–6.

205 Ibid p. 304 n2. ‘Hic ergo concessis, beatus Franciscus gratias egit Deo et genibus flexis promisit domino papae obedientiam et reverentiam humiliter et devote’.

206 Maccarrone, Studi pp. 304–5.

207 Ibid p. 305.

208 Grundmann, pp. 133–5.

209 Ibid p. 141; Maccarrone, Studi p. 305; Jordan of Saxony, Libellus de principiis ordinis praedicatorum, ed H-C. Scheeben, in Monumenta Histórica S. Patris Nostri Dominici, I (Rome 1935) p. 44.

210 Monumenta diplomatica S. Dominici, ed V.J. Koudelka and R.I. Loenertz (Rome 1966) pp. 56–8; Vicaire, Saint Dominic pp. 115–36; Grundmann, p. 211.

211 Maccarrone, Studi p. 306; Vicaire, Saint Dominic pp. 217–39.

212 COD, Canon 10, p. 239.

213 Grundmann, p. 211; Little, Religious Poverty pp. 152–8.

214 Gesta CXLIX, Ad costruenda aedificia Sancti Sixti, ad opus monialium, quingen-tas uncías auri regis et mille centum libras proviniensium. The work was begun c. 1208. V.J. Koudelka, ‘Le monasterium tempuli et la fondation dominicain de San Sisto’, AFP 31 (1961) pp. 5–81; Maccarrone, Studi pp. 272–8.

215 M.H. Vicaire, ‘Fondation, approbation, confirmation de l’ordre des Prêcheurs’, RHE 47 (1952) pp. 123–41; Maccarrone, Studi p. 306.

216 Ibid COD, Canon 13, p. 242.

217 Monumenta diplomatica S. Dominici pp. 86–7.

218 Vicaire, Saint Dominic pp. 310–11. Dominic had been deeply impressed by the example of Grandmont and had attempted to introduce the institution of conversi to take over temporal matters from the preachers. The first Dominican Chapterat Bologna in 1220 rejected his ideal, possibly because of Innocent’s earlier strictures, choosing instead corporate poverty. Processus Canonizationis S. Dominici apud Bononiam, ed A. Walz, MOPH 16 (Rome 1935) 32.