Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-2plfb Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-27T18:43:42.390Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

City on a Hill: American Exceptionalism and the Elect Nation

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  21 March 2016

J. R. Oldfield*
Affiliation:
University of Southampton

Extract

Some years ago I was invited to spend a day in an elementary school in Columbia, South Carolina. The day began, as I imagine every day began, with the national anthem and the pledge of allegiance to the American flag. The children then sang a song, a ditty really, which began as it ended with the simple refrain: ‘I am special’. Later I was shown some of the work the class had been doing. Across the back of the room were pinned up the children’s attempts to answer a question that had been exercising me, namely what was special about the United States. Some of the responses were fairly predictable. America was special, one seven-year-old wrote, because it was a democracy. Others singled out freedom or liberty as their country’s unique virtue. One brave soul boldly asserted that America was special because Americans were rich, while another thought the secret had something to do with happiness.

Type
Research Article
Copyright
Copyright © Ecclesiastical History Society 2000

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

1 For the settlement of British North America, see Boorstin, Daniel, The Americans: The Colonial Experience (London, 1988)Google Scholar; Bailyn, Bernard, The Peopling of British North America: An Introduction (London, 1986)Google Scholar and Voyages to the West: A Passage in the Peopling of America on the Eve of the Revolution (London, 1986); Simmons, R. C., The American Colonies: From Settlement to Independence (London, 1976).Google Scholar

2 Morgan, Edmund S., The Puritan Dilemma: The Story of John Winthrop (Boston, MA, 1958), pp. 2733 Google Scholar. See also Allen, David G., In English Ways (Chapel Hill, NC, 1981)Google Scholar; Perry Miller, David G., Errand in the Wilderness (Cambridge, MA, 1956)Google Scholar.

3 Morgan, Puritan Dilemma, pp. 69-71. For Bulkeley, see Horsman, , Race and Manifest Destiny: The Origins of American Racial Anglo-Saxonism (Cambridge, MA, 1981), pp. 823 Google Scholar. See also Miller, Perry, The New England Mind: The Seventeenth Century (New York, 1939).Google Scholar

4 Morgan, Puritan Dilemma, pp. 71-83, 115-33. See also Lockridge, Kenneth A., A New England Toum: The First One Hundred Years (New York, 1970)Google Scholar; Morgan, Edmund S., The Puritan Family (Boston, MA, 1944).Google Scholar

5 Horsman, Race and Manifest Destiny, pp. 82-3. As Horsman points out, in the 1740s Jonathan Edwards saw the regeneration of the Old World as a major mission of America.

6 Fitzgerald, Francis, Cities on a Hill: A Journey through Contemporary American Cultures (New York, 1987), pp. 234 Google Scholar. Robert Hughes notes perceptively that ‘no other civilization has been as obsessed with the idea of radical newness as America’s.’ ‘Newness’, he goes on, ‘became to Americans what Antiquity was to Europeans - a sign of integrity, the mark of a special relationship to history.’ See Hughes, Robert, American Visions: The Epic History of Art in America (New York, 1997), pp. 212.Google Scholar

7 There is a massive literature on the American Revolution but see especially Countryman, Edward, The American Revolution (New York, 1985)Google Scholar; Wood, Gordon S., The Creation of the American Republic, 1776-1787 (Chapel Hill, NC, 1969)Google Scholar; Bailyn, Bernard, The Ideological Origins of the American Revolution (Cambridge, MA, 1967).Google Scholar

8 On the Constitution, see Keenan, Joseph T., The Constitution of the United States: An Unfolding Story (Chicago, 1988)Google Scholar; Main, Jackson Turner, The Antifederalists: Critics of the Constitution, 1781-1788 (New York, 1974)Google Scholar; Rossiter, Clinton, 1787: The Grand Convention (New York, 1966).Google Scholar

9 In the last letter he wrote, in 1826, Jefferson reiterated his lifelong belief that the American Revolution would be ‘(to some parts sooner, to others later, but finally to all), the signal of arousing men to burst the chains under which monkish ignorance and superstition had persuaded them to bind themselves, and to assume the blessings and security of self-government’. Thomas Jefferson to Roger C. Weightman, 24 June 1826, in Koch, Adrienne and Peden, William, eds, The Life and Selected Writings of Thomas Jefferson (New York, 1944), p. 729.Google Scholar

10 Peterson, Merrill D., Adams and Jefferson: A Revolutionary Dialogue (New York, 1976), pp. 56 Google Scholar. The essay in question was A Dissertation on the Canon and Feudal Law (1765).

11 ‘For Evangelicals and reform movements in general, see Walters, Ronald G., American Reformers, 1815-1860 (New York, 1978), esp. pp. 2137 Google Scholar. For Garrison and American anti-slavery, see Stewart, James Brewer, Holy Warriors: The Abolitionists and American Slavery (New York, 1976)Google Scholar; Perry, Lewis, Radical Abolitionism: Anarchy and the Government of God in Antislavery Thought (Ithaca, NY, 1973)Google Scholar; Kraditor, Aileen S., Means and Ends in American Abolitionism: Garrison and His Critics on Strategy and Tactics, 1834-1850 (New York, 1967).Google Scholar

12 Walters, American Reformers, pp. 29-33. In 1837 the American Tract Society claimed to have 3,000 auxiliaries.

13 Stewart, Holy Warriors, pp. 44-5.

14 Charles Dickens to John Forster, 14 Feb. 1841, in Madeline House, Storey, Graham, and Tillotson, Kathleen, eds, The Letters of Charles Dickens, 10 vols (1 Oxford, 1974-98), 3, pp. 501.Google Scholar

15 Dickens, Charles, Martin Chuzzlewit (1843-4; rpt, London, 1977), p. 619.Google Scholar

16 The classic account of westward expansion is still Billington, Ray Allen, Westward Expansion: A History of the American Frontier (New York, 1949)Google Scholar. See also Unruh, John D., The Plains Across: The Overland Emigrants and the Trans-Mississippi West, 1840-1860 (Urbana, IL, 1979)Google Scholar; Starr, Kevin, Americans and the Californian Dream, 1850-1915 (New York, 1973).Google Scholar

17 Dickens, Martin Chuzzlewit, p. 414. For the symbolism of the West, see Smith, Henry Nash, Virgin Land: The American West as Symbol and Myth (Cambridge, MA, 1950).Google Scholar

18 Turner, Frederick Jackson, ‘The significance of the frontier in American history’, Annual Report of the American Historical Association, 1893 (Washington, DC, 1894), pp. 199227 Google Scholar. The article is reprinted in Turner’s, The Frontier in American History (New York, 1920), pp. 138.Google Scholar

19 Horsman, Race and Manifest Detiny, pp. 85-6.

20 Quoted in Tindall, George B. and Shi, David E., America: A Narrative History (New York, 1989), p. 332 Google Scholar. For manifest destiny, see Merk, Frederick, Manifest Destiny and Mission in American History (New York, 1963).Google Scholar

21 Horsman, Race and Manifest Destiny, pp. 85-6.

22 Quoted in ibid., p. 235. ‘Convinced of the utility and happy consequences of establishing the Oregon colony,’ wrote the New Englander, Hall J. Kelley, in 1830, ‘the American republic will found, protect and cherish it, and thus enlarge the sphere of human felicity, and extend the peculiar blessings of civil polity, and of the Christian religion, to distant and destitute nations.’ See ibid., p. 89.

23 Walters, American Reformers, p. 26.

24 For Garrison and the Civil War, see ibid., p. 120. For Southern Unionists, see Degler, Carl, The Other South: Southern Dissenters in the Nineteenth Century (New York, 1974).Google Scholar

25 For the text and an illuminating commentary on the Gettysburg Address, see Wills, Garry, Lincoln at Gettysburg: The Words that Remade America (New York, 1992).Google Scholar

26 See Horsman, Race and Manifest Destiny, esp. chs 6 and 7.

27 Herbst, Jurgen, ed., Josiah Strong: Our Country (Cambridge, MA, 1963), pp. 202 (quotation), 21617 Google Scholar; Fiske, John, American Political Ideas: Viewed from the Standpoint of Universal History (New York, 1885), pp. 556, 98100, 1434.Google Scholar

28 Herbst, Josiah Strong, p. 211. Strong evidently thought there was ‘abundant reason to believe that the Anglo-Saxon race is to be, is, indeed, already becoming, more effective here than in the mother country’. See ibid., p. 210.

29 Horsman, Race and Manifest Destiny, pp. 220-4; Gay, Peter, The Bourgeois Experience, 3, The Cultivation of Hatred (New York and London, 1993), pp. 856.Google Scholar

30 For the Spanish-American War, see Smith, Joseph, The Spanish-American War: Conflict in the Caribbean and the Pacific, 1895-1902 (London and New York, 1994)Google Scholar; LaFaber, Walter, The American Search for Opportunity, The Cambridge History of American Foreign Relations, 2 (Cambridge, 1993)Google Scholar.

31 Quoted in Smith, The Spanish-American War, p. 198.

32 Quoted in Silber, Nina, The Romance of Reunion: Northerners and the South, 1865-1900 (Chapel Hill, NC, 1993), p. 167.Google Scholar

33 Ibid., pp. 187-95. For Roosevelt’s friendship with Wister, see Wister, Owen, Roosevelt: The Story of a Friendship, 1880-1919 (New York, 1930)Google Scholar. Another key figure here, of course, was the artist and writer, Frederic Remington, who, like Wister, ‘was interested in identifying that unique blend of regional qualities which produced a distinctive American character’. See Silber, Romance of Reunion, p. 191.

34 Quoted in Wrobel, David M., The Ending of American Exceptionalism: Frontier Anxiety from the Old West to the New Deal (Lawrence, KA, 1993), p. 6.Google Scholar

35 Ibid., pp. 40-1, 71-2.

36 Gould, Lewis L., The Presidency of Theodore Roosevelt (Lawrence, KA, 1991), pp. 7399 Google Scholar. See also Beale, Howard K., Theodore Roosevelt and the Rise of America to World Power (Baltimore, MD, 1956).Google Scholar

37 Kennan, George F., American Diplomacy, 1900-1950 (Chicago, 1950), p. 96.Google Scholar

38 For America during the 1920s and 1930s, see Parrish, Michael E., Anxious Decades: America in Prosperity and Depression (New York, 1992)Google Scholar. The tension between internationalism and isolationism is, of course, a major theme in America history. It may not be too fanciful to suggest a parallel here with the Puritan experience in colonial Massachusetts. While Puritans were acutely aware of their obligation to take their message to other nations, they were also highly self-critical. Such introspection naturally carried with it the threat of retreat or separatism.

39 See Diggins, John Patrick, The Proud Decades: America in War and Peace, 1941-1960 (New York, 1988)Google Scholar; Graebner, Norman A., America as a World Power: A Realist Appraisal from Wilson to Reagan (Wilmington, DE, 1984).Google Scholar

40 Hughes, American Visions, pp. 510-11. See also Heale, M.J., McCarthy’s Americans: Red Scare Politics in State and Nation, 1935-1965 (London, 1998)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Lyons, Eugene, The Red Decade (New York, 1941).Google Scholar

41 For Vietnam, see Baritz, Loren, Backfire: A History of How American Culture Led Us into Vietnam (Baltimore, MD, 1998)Google Scholar; Young, Marilyn B., The Vietnam Wars, 1945-1990 (New York, 1992)Google Scholar; Hellman, John, American Myth and the Legacy of Vietnam (New York, 1976).Google Scholar

42 Oldfield, J. R., ‘From Reagan to Bush: political change in the United States’, in Pugh, Michael and Williams, Phil, eds, Superpower Politics: Change in the United States and the Soviet Union (Manchester, 1990), pp. 224 Google Scholar. See also Dallek, Robert, Ronald Reagan: The Politics of Symbolism (Cambridge, MA, 1984).Google Scholar

43 Tindall and Shi, America, p. 817. See also Halberstam, David, The Fifties (New York, 1993).Google Scholar

44 See Galbraith, John K., The Affluent Society (London, 1958)Google Scholar. Picking up this theme, the historian David Potter argued that economic abundance had decisively shaped American society and culture. See Potter, David, People of Plenty: Economic Abundance and the American Character (Chicago, 1954).CrossRefGoogle Scholar

45 For the 1960s, see Bloom, Alexander and Breims, Wini, eds, ‘ Taking it to the Streets ’: A Sixties Reader (New York, 1995)Google Scholar; Gitlin, Todd, The Sixties: Years of Hope, Days of Rage (New York, 1987).Google Scholar

46 Oldfield, ‘From Reagan to Bush’, pp. 22-3; Tindall and Shi, America, pp. 929-30.

47 See Wills, Garry, Reagan’s America: Innocents at Home (New York, 1987)Google Scholar; Viguerie, Richard A., The New Right: We’re Ready to Lead (Falls Church, VA, 1981)Google Scholar; Crawford, Allan, Thunder on the Right: The ‘New Right’ and the Politics of Resentment (New York, 1980).Google Scholar

48 Oldfield, ‘From Reagan to Bush’, pp. 21-4.

49 Quoted in Wrobel, Ending of American Exceptionalism, p. 59.

50 Ibid., pp. 70-1, 112-21.

51 Cook, Robert, Sweet Land of Liberty? The African-American Struggle for Civil Rights in the Twentieth Century (London, 1998), pp. 956 Google Scholar; Blumberg, Rhoda Louis, Civil Rights: The 1960s Freedom Struggle (Boston, MA, 1984), pp. 257 Google Scholar, 34. As Cook points out, however, communism was frequently turned against civil rights activists by Southern segregationists.

52 Gerber, David E., ed., Anti-Semitism in American History (Urbana, IL, 1986), pp. 910.Google Scholar

53 Walker, Samuel, Hate Speech: The History of an American Controversy (Lincoln, NE, 1994), p. 2 Google Scholar. See also Gates, Henry Louis, Jr, , Griffin, Anthony P., Lively, Donald E., Post, Robert C., Rubinstein, William B., and Strossen, Nadine, Speaking of Race, Speaking of Sex: Hate Speech, Civil Rights, and Civil Liberties (New York, 1994).Google Scholar

54 See, for instance, White, Richard, ‘It’s Your Misfortune and None of My Own’: A New History of the American West (Norman, OK, 1991)Google Scholar; Limerick, Patricia Nelson, The Legacy of Conquest: The Unbroken Past of the American West (New York, 1987).Google Scholar

55 See Robbins, William G., ‘Laying siege to western history: the emergence of new paradigms’, in Limerick, Patricia, IIMiller, Clyde A., and Rankin, Charles E., eds, Trails: Toward a New Western History (Lawrence, KA, 1991), pp. 182214 Google Scholar. For comparative slave studies, see Engerman, Stanley L. and Genovese, Eugene D., eds, Race and Slavery in the Western Hemisphere: Quantitative Studies (Princeton, NJ, 1975)Google Scholar; Degler, Carl N., Neither Black Nor White: Slavery and Race Relations in Brazil and the United States (New York, 1971).Google Scholar