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Persecution and Toleration in pre-colonial Africa: nineteenth-century Yorubaland

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  21 March 2016

John Iliffe
John Iliffe*
Affiliation:
St John’s College, Cambridge
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Extract

When Christian missionaries penetrated sub-Saharan Africa during the nineteenth century, three main persecutions of their converts caught the attention of Europe. The earliest took place in Madagascar between 1837 and 1857, when several hundred converts attached to the London Missionary Society were killed. The last of the three occurred in the Buganda kingdom of East Africa and culminated on 3 June 1886 when some 26 Baganda Christians were burned on a single pyre. Both these persecutions took place in autocratic and expanding kingdoms whose modernising rulers had initially welcomed missionaries for their skills. In both kingdoms the missionaries converted younger members of the ruling class. In both, the deaths of the modernising rulers precipitated traditionalist reactions in which converts were killed more to discourage and control Christianity than to extirpate it. Both persecutions were bounded in time. Both failed, leading only to further Christian expansion, the capture of power by Christian modernisers, and their use of the authoritarian political institutions to create overtly Christian kingdoms.

Type
Research Article
Information
Studies in Church History , Volume 21: Persecution and Toleration , 1984 , pp. 357 - 378
Copyright
Copyright © Ecclesiastical History Society 1984

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References

1 See Ellis, [William], [The] martyr church (London 1870)Google Scholar; Gow, Bonar A., Madagascar and the Protestant impact (London 1979) cap 1.Google Scholar

2 Faupel, J. F., African holocaust: the story of the Uganda Martyrs (London 1962) p 198 Google Scholar. The best account is Rowe, J. A, ‘The purge of Christians at Mwanga’s court’, Journal of African history 5 (1964) 55–71.Google Scholar

3 The outstanding modern account of missionary work in this area is [J. F. A.] Ajayi, Christian missions [in Nigeria 1841–1891 (London 1965)]. The most detailed account of the persecution is P. R. McKenzie, Inter-religious encounters [in West Africa: Samuel Ajayi Crowther’s attitude to African traditional religion and Islam (Leicester 1976)] pp 26–31. See also Peter McKenzie, ‘The persecution of early Nigerian converts’, Orita (Ibadan) 11, 1 (June 1977) 3–14.

4 Eades, J. S., The Yoruba today (Cambridge 1980) pp 128, 143.Google Scholar

5 The records of the Church Missionary Society (cited as CMS) are in the Birmingham University Library, those of the Wesleyan Methodist Missionary Society (cited as MMS) are in the Library of the School of Oriental and African Studies, London. I am indebted to the librarians of both institutions and also to the Executive Director of the Historical Commission of the Southern Baptist Convention for a microfilm of the papers of T. J. Bowen.

6 See E. Bolaji Idowu, Olodumare: God in Yoruba belief (London 1962).

7 See [William] Bascom, Ifa [divination (Bloomington 1969)].

8 Lahanmi, journal, 14 March 1884, CMS G3/A2/0/1884/208; Young, journal, 29 July 1884, CMS G3/A2/0/1885/7; A. K. Ajisafe, History of Abeokuta (2 edn Bungay 1924) p 142.

9 Townsend, journal, 25 September 1846, CMS C.A2/0.85/233. For Islam, see T. G. O. Gbadamosi, The growth of Islam among the Yoruba, 1841–1908 (London 1978).

10 See, for example, Robert Farris Thompson, ‘Yoruba artistic criticism’, in Warren L. d’Azevedo ed, The traditional artist in African societies (Bloomington 1973) pp 58–9.

11 W. S. Allen, journal, 24 August 1869, CMS C.A2/0.19/8; Lahanmi, journal, 20 August 1884, CMS G3/A2/0/1885/45; Meakin, journal, 15 September 1858, CMS C.A2/0.69/10.

12 Wood to Lang, 12 November 1885, CMS G3/A2/0/1886/4.

13 Hinderer, journal, 23 March 1851, CMS C.A2/0.49/101.

14 C. Phillips, journal, 24 October 1852, CMS C.A2/0.77/3.

15 Crowther to Acland, 22 September 1852, CMS C.A2/0.31/23.

16 Peel, J. D. Y., ‘Olaju: a Yoruba concept of development’, Journal of development studies 14 (1977-8) 139–65.Google Scholar

17 Annear, journal, 7 August 1844, MMS 260/F/6.

18 S. Johnson, journal, 4 July 1879, CMS G3/A2/0/1880/160.

19 C. Phillips, journal, 1 October 1888, CMS G3/A2/0/1889/56.

20 See [N. A.] Fadipe, [The] sociology [of the Yoruba (Ibadan 1970)] pp 97–118. Family-based compounds were especially predominant in new towns like Abeokuta and Ibadan: see J. D. Y. Peel, Ijeshas and Nigerians (Cambridge 1983) p 36.

21 Wright, journal, 6 August 1866, CMS C.A2 PP 0.97/4.

22 S. Johnson, journal, 24 December 1877, CMS C.A2/0.58/9.

23 G. E. M. de Ste. Croix, ‘Why were the early Christians persecuted?’ PP26(1963)p 25.

24 Doherty, journal, 9 October 1877, CMS C.A2/0.35/13.

25 Bascom, Ifa p 115.

26 Gbadebo Gbadamosi, ‘“Odu Imale”: Islam in Ifa divination and the case of predestined Muslims’, Journal of the Historical Society of Nigeria 8, 4 (June 1977) 88–92; McKenzie, lnter-religious encounters pp 14–15.

27 Anonymous journal (from Ikorodu), 27 February 1872, CMS C.A2/0.29/9.

28 D. Williams, journal, 14 November 1873, CMS C.A2/0.90/23.

29 Meyer Fortes, Oedipus and Job in West African religion (Cambridge 1959) p 19.

30 Maser, journal, 13 September 1864, CMS C.A2/0.68/130. Eshu, the messenger between Olorun and men, was commonly misinterpreted by missionaries as the Devil.

31 D. Williams, journal, 12 February 1873, CMS C.A2/0.90/21.

32 W. Allen, journal, 27 December 1859, CMS C.A2/0.18/17.

33 Townsend to Secretary, 17 May 1853, CMS C.A2/0.85/16.

34 Doherty, journal, 20 August 1881, CMS G3/A2/0/1882/29.

35 J. Johnson, ‘A visit of inspection to Ilaro and itinerancies’, January 1879, CMS C.A2/0.56/52.

36 Savage, journal, 24 February 1896, CMS G3/A2/0/1896/159.

37 Doherty, journal, 19 February 1875, CMS C.A2/0.35/8.

38 Maser, journal, 20 July 1853, CMS C.A2/0.68/112.

39 Hinderer, ‘Half yearly Report of the Ibadan Station ending April 1859’, CMS C.A2/0.49/116.

40 Maser, journal, 16 May 1856, CMS C.A2/0.68/122.

41 See, for example, Marie-Cécile and Edmond Ortigues, Oedipe africain (new ed Paris 1973) cap 4.

42 Lahanmi, journal, 9 February 1888, CMS G3/A2/0/1889/125.

43 Walker to Baylis, 13 March 1894, CMS G3/A5/0/1894/116.

44 Barber, journal, 10 March 1858, CMS C.A2/0.21/20.

45 J. Smith, journal, 5 April 1859, CMS C.A.2.0/83/16; Olubi to Committee, 26 June 1871, CMS C.A2/0.75/3; White, journal, 28 May 1874, CMS C.A2/0.87/84.

46 ‘Report of C. A. Gollmer for the halfyear ending September 25th 1861’, CMS C.A2/0.43/136.

47 Townsend to Secretary, 17 May 1853, CMS C.A2/0.85/16.

48 Maser, journal, 7 November 1856, CMS C.A2/0.68/124.

49 Vincent, journal, 13 August 1884, CMS G3/A2/0/1885/8.

50 Kefer, journal, 7 August 1854, CMS C.A2/0.59/6.

51 Townsend to Straith, 20 July 1852, CMS C.A2/0.85/12.

52 Moore, journal, 21 June 1864, CMS C.A2/0.70/51.

53 S. Johnson, journal, 26 April 1879, CMS C.A2/0.58/11.

54 Macaulay, journal, 22 November 1855, CMS C.A2/0.65/93.

55 White, journal, 5 July 1856, CMS C.A2/0.87/51.

56 Ste. Croix, ‘Why were the early Christians persecuted?’ p 24.

57 See, for example, CMS Unofficial Papers 84, F/3/1, book V, p 19.

58 Michael Wright, Buganda in the heroic age (Nairobi 1971) pp 22–3.

59 John Roscoe, The Baganda (2 edn London 1965) p 96.

60 See John V. Taylor, The growth of the Church in Buganda (London 1958) pp 32–4.

61 Ellis, Martyr church pp 68, 78, 138–40; William J. Townsend, Madagascar: its missionaries and martyrs (London n.d.) pp 65, 81–2.

62 Townsend, journal, 12 December 1847, CMS C.A2/0.85/239. The case was previously mentioned in Crowther to Greenway, 15 September 1847, CMS C.A2/0.31/2.

63 Earl Phillips, ‘The Egba at Abeokuta: acculturation and political change, 1830–1870’, Journal of African history 10 (1969) pp 120–1.

64 S. A. Crowther, journal, 4–6 October 1848, CMS C. A2/0.31/104.

65 Ibid., 13–17 October and 19 November 1848, CMS C.A2/0.31/104.

66 Müller, journal, 3 July 1849, CMS C.A2/0.72/11.

67 Bickersteth, quoted in Martin to Secretaries, 18 July 1849, MMS 261/A/25.

68 Bickersteth, journal, 13 October 1849, MMS 261/A/32.

69 Hinderer, journal, 10–16 October 1849, CMS C.A2/0.49/96.

70 Crowther to Venn, 3 November 1849, CMS C.A2/0.31/8.

71 Hinderer, journal, 20–28 October 1849, CMS C.A2/0.49/96.

72 S. A. Crowther, journal, 21 November-9 December 1850, CMS C.A2/0.31/112.

73 Ibid. 10–19 January 1851, CMS C.A2/0.31/113; [Earl Harold] Phillips, ‘The Church Missionary Society, [the imperial factor, and Yoruba politics, 1842–1873’ (unpub PhD thesis, University of Southern California 1966)] pp 157–66.

74 Smith to Venn, January 1855, CMS C.A2/0.82/30.

75 Champness to Hoole, 29 January 1862, MMS 263/C/7.

76 See, for example, Morgan, journal, 20 August 1857, CMS C.A2/0.71/33.

77 Ajayi, Christian missions, pp 4–5, 15, 39, 226.

78 The seminal work is Claude Meillassoux, Anthropologie économique des Gouro de Côte d’Ivoire (Paris 1964). For the changing historiography, see Lonsdale, John, ‘States and social processes in Africa: a historiographical survey’, African studies review, 24 (1981) pp 139–225 Google Scholar.

79 Mann, journal, 2 December 1853, CMS C.A2/0.66/80.

80 White, journal, 25 March 1867, CMS C.A2/0.87/70.

81 Seventeen years in the Yoruba country: memorials of Anna Hinderer (London 1872) pp 131–7.

82 Maser, journal, 9 July 1858, CMS C.A2/0.68/125; S. Crowther, journal, quarter ending 25 December 1856, CMS C.A2/0.32/65; J. Johnson, ‘From Ibadan to Oyo and Ogbomoso’, n.d. [1877] CMS C.A2/0.56/51.

83 Above, p 368.

84 King to Straith, 25 April 1853, CMS C.A2/0.61/3.

85 See Fadipe, Sociology, pp 108–9.

86 Maser, journal, 9 July 1856, CMS C.A2/0.68/123.

87 J. Smith, journal, 6 July 1860, CMS C.A2/0.83/18; Townsend, journal, 17 July 1858, CMS C.A2/0.85/263.

88 C. Phillips, journal, 16 February 1890, CMS G3/A2/0/1890/166.

89 The most comprehensive (and perhaps somewhat idealised) account is E. Adeniyi Oroge, ‘The institution of slavery in Yorubaland with particular reference to the nineteenth century’ (Unpub PhD thesis, Birmingham University 1971).

90 Lijadu, journal, 18 February 1893, CMS G3/A2/0/1893/132.

91 Tugwell, ‘Abeokuta: re Companies’, n.d. [September 1898] CMSG3/A2/0/1898/ 150. Generally, see Maser to Venn, 15 May 1867, CMS C.A2/0.68/75.

92 Wood to Lang, 10 June 1887, CMS G3/A2/0/1887/143; Olubi to Committee, 17 January 1872, CMS C.A2/0.75/4.

93 Minutes of Abeokuta Native Church Council, 1 July 1889, CMS G3/A2/0/1889/115.

94 Olubi to Fenn, 19 February 1880, CMS C.A2/0.75/47.

95 ‘Bishop Phillips’s account of work in the Ondo Mission District from Deer. 1899 to March 1900’, CMS G3/A2/0/1900/89; Robert Smith, ‘Nigeria-Ijebu’, in Michael Crowder (ed), West African resistance (London 1971) pp 170–7.

96 ‘Report from Revd. J. Johnson’, August 1877, CMS C/A2/0.56/50.

97 See. B. A. Awe, ‘The rise of Ibadan as a Yoruba power in the nineteenth century’ (unpub D. Phil Thesis, Oxford University 1964) cap 6.

98 C. Phillips Jr., journal, 8 August 1879, CMS C.A2/0.78/22.

99 Harding, circular letter, 30 September 1892, CMS G3/A2/0/1892/192.

100 Olubi, journal, 15 June 1874, CMS C.A2/0.75/30.

101 Maser, journal, 21 May 1855, CMS C.A2/0.68/119.

102 Moore to Hutchinson, 5 May 1874, CMS C.A2/0.70/28.

103 For a vivid example, see R. H. Stone, In Afric’s forest and jungle, or six years among the Yorubans (Edinburgh 1900) p 59.

104 See especially Phillips, ‘Church Missionary Society’ pp 697–718.

105 Saburi O. Biobaku, The Egba and their neighbours 1842–1872 (Oxford 1957) p 90.

106 W. Allen, journal, 13 October 1867, CMS C.A2/0.18/20; Maser, The second persecution of the Abeokuta Mission, Octr. 1867’, CMS C.A2/0.68/163; Grimmer to Boyce, 4 November 1867, MMS 263/E/91.

107 Williams to Secretaries, 11 December 1872, CMS C.A2/0.90/30; Williams to Fenn, 7 March 1879, CMS C.A2/0.90/36; Proceedings of the Church Missionary Society (1890–1) p 26.

108 Faulkner to Fenn, 28 January 1881, CMS G3/A2/0/1881/35.

109 Tugwell, ‘Regarding burials, heathen and Christian’, n.d. [September 1898] CMS G3/A2/0/1898/149; ‘Abeokuta Divorce Court. August 1898’, CMS G3/A2/0/1898/151; Lamb to Lang, 8 May 1883, CMS G3/A2/0/1883/88.

110 Marshall to Boyce, 31 October 1870, MMS 264/B/36; Thomas to Kilner, 2 December 1878, MMS 272/A/34; C. P. Groves, The planting of Christianity in Africa (4 vols London 1948–58) 2 p 235.

111 Green, journal, 25 March 1884, CMS G3/A2/0/1885/44.

112 Ste. Croix, ‘Why were the early Christians persecuted?’ pp 26–7; Peel, Ijeshas, pp 169–70.

113 Townsend to Secretaries, 8 November 1850, CMS C.A2/0.85/3.

114 Hinderer, journal, 27 October 1855, CMS C.A2/0.49/113.

115 P. C. Lloyd, ‘The elite’, in P. C. Lloyd and others (ed), The city of Ibadan (Cambridge 1967) pp 139–43. For individual accounts, see T. A. Adebiyi, The beloved bishop: the life of Bishop A. B. Akinyele (Ibadan 1969); Wole Soyinka, Aké: the years of childhood (London 1981); Carlos Moore, Fela, Fela: this bitch of a life (London 1982).

116 I am indebted to Dr J. S. Eades and Dr J. M. Lonsdale for their comments on a draft of this paper, and to Professor J. A. Crook and Dr P. H. Linehan for advice on comparative reading.