Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-gb8f7 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-24T04:37:48.521Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

The Qum Protests and the Coming of the Iranian Revolution, 1975 and 1978

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  04 January 2016

Charles Kurzman
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

In June 1975 and January 1978, seminary students in the shrine city of Qum, Iran, staged public protests against the regime of Shah Muhammad Riza Pahlavi. In both instances security forces forcibly suppressed the protests. Yet the first incident generated almost no public outcry, while the second incident echoed throughout Iran and quickly became a rallying point for revolutionary mobilization. What was different about Iran in mid-1975 and early 1978 that might account for these different reactions? This article examines three widely credited explanations: economic downturn, widening political opportunity, and organizational mobilization of the opposition. The examination of economic and political explanations uncovered little evidence of significant differences between the two time periods; organizational explanations, by contrast, accounted for significant shifts in 1977 among the moderate and Islamist opposition, with the Islamist opposition in particular exhibiting a sense of optimism and efficacy in the weeks before January 1978. This changed self-perception appears to be the most likely explanation for the wave of protest that followed the suppression of the Qum protest of January 1978.

Type
Articles
Information
Social Science History , Volume 27 , Issue 3 , Fall 2003 , pp. 287 - 325
Copyright
Copyright © Social Science History Association 2003 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

ʿAbbasi, Muhammad (1980) Tarikh-i inqilab-i islami [History of the Islamic Revolution]. Tehran: Intisharat-i Sharq.Google Scholar
Abrahamian, Ervand (1978) “Iran: The political challenge.” MERIP Reports 69: 3–8.Google Scholar
Abrahamian, Ervand (1982) Iran between Two Revolutions. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Abrahamian, Ervand (1989) The Iranian Mojahedin. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Akhavi, Shahrough (1980) Religion and Politics in Contemporary Iran. Albany: State University of New York Press.Google Scholar
Akhavi, Shahrough (1983) “The ideology and praxis of Shiʿism in the Iranian revolution.” Comparative Studies in Society and History 25: 195–221.Google Scholar
Alam, Asadollah (1991) The Shah and I: The Confidential Diary of Iran’s Royal Court, 1969–1977. London: I. B. Tauris.Google Scholar
Amraʾi, Suhbatullah (1982) “Barrasi-yi muqiʿyat-i ijtima‘i-yi shuhada-yi inqilab-i islami az Shahrivar 1357 ta akharin-i Bahman 1357” [Analysis of the social background of the martyrs of the Islamic Revolution from August 1978 to late February 1979]. M.A. thesis, University of Tehran.Google Scholar
Amuzegar, Jahangir (1991) The Dynamics of the Iranian Revolution. Albany: State University of New York Press.Google Scholar
Arjomand, Said Amir (1988) The Turban for the Crown: The Islamic Revolution in Iran. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Ashraf, Ahmad (1988) “The bazaar-mosque alliance.” International Journal of Politics, Culture and Society 1: 538–67.Google Scholar
Ashraf, Ahmad, and Banuazizi, Ali (1985) “The state, classes, and modes of mobilization in the Iranian revolution.” State, Culture, and Society 1: 3–40.Google Scholar
Asnad va tasaviri az mubarizat-i khalq-i musalman-i Iran [Documents and pictures from the struggles of the Muslim people of Iran] (1978) 2 vols. Tehran: Abuzar.Google Scholar
Asnad-i inqilab-i islami [Documents of Islamic revolution] (1990–96) 5 vols. Tehran: Markaz-i Asnad-i Inqilab-i Islami.Google Scholar
Asnad-i lanah-yi jasusi [The spy nest documents] (1980–91) 77 vols. Tehran: Danishjuyan-i Musalman-i Payru-i Khat-i Imam.Google Scholar
Badamchiyan, Asadollah (1995) Shinakht-i inqilab-i islami va rishahʾha-yi an [Understanding the Islamic revolution and its roots]. Tehran: Danishgah-i Azad-i Islami.Google Scholar
Bakhash, Shaul (1990) The Reign of the Ayatollahs. Rev. ed. New York: Basic.Google Scholar
Bank Markazi Iran [Central Bank of Iran] (1974) Annual Report and Balance Sheet. Tehran: Bank Markazi Iran.Google Scholar
Bank Markazi Iran [Central Bank of Iran] (1976) Annual Report and Balance Sheet. Tehran: Bank Markazi Iran.Google Scholar
Bank Markazi Iran [Central Bank of Iran] (1978) Annual Report and Balance Sheet. Tehran: Bank Markazi Iran.Google Scholar
Bashiriyeh, Hossein (1984) State and Revolution in Iran, 1962–1982. New York: St. Martin’s.Google Scholar
Bauer, Janet (1983) “Poor women and social consciousness in revolutionary Iran,” in Nashat, Guity (ed.) Women and Revolution in Iran. Boulder, CO: Westview:141–69.Google Scholar
Bayat, Assef (1987) Workers and Revolution in Iran. London: Zed.Google Scholar
Bazargan, Mahdi (1984) Inqilab-i Iran dar du harikat [The Iranian Revolution in two movements]. Tehran: Daftar-i Nahzat-i Azadi-yi Iran.Google Scholar
Behn, Wolfgang (1984) Iranian Opposition to the Shah. Zug, Switzerland: Inter Documentation Co.Google Scholar
Behrooz, Maziar (1999) Rebels with a Cause: The Failure of the Left in Iran. London: I. B. Tauris.Google Scholar
Benedick, Richard Elliot (1964) Industrial Finance in Iran: A Study of Financial Practice in an Underdeveloped Economy. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School.Google Scholar
Burke, Edmund III, and Lubeck, Paul (1987) “Explaining social movements in two oil-exporting states: Divergent outcomes in Nigeria and Iran.” Comparative Studies in Society and History 29: 643–65.Google Scholar
Carter, Jimmy (1989) “Revolution: A president’s perspective,” in Boswell, Terry (ed.) Revolution in the World-System. New York: Greenwood: 217–30.Google Scholar
Cottam, Richard W. (1977) “Statement of Richard W. Cottam,” in Human Rights in Iran: Hearing before the Subcommittee on International Organizations, Committee on International Relations, U.S. House of Representatives, 95th Cong., 1st sess., 26 October 1977: 8–14.Google Scholar
Cottam, Richard W. (1979) Nationalism in Iran (Updated through 1978). Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press.Google Scholar
Dahnavi, [Muhammad] (1981) Qiyam-i khunin-i 15 Khurdad bih ravayit-i asnad [The bloody uprising of 5 June {1963} according to the documents]. Tehran: Mu asisah-yi Khidmat-i Farhangi-yi Rasa.Google Scholar
Dar-barah-yi qiyam-i hamasah-afarinan-i Qum va Tabriz [On the epic uprising of Qum and Tabriz] (1978) 3 vols. Tehran: Nahzat-i Azadi-yi Iran.Google Scholar
Davani, Ali (1998) Nahzat-i ruhaniyun-i Iran [The movement of the clerics in Iran]. 2d ed. 10 vols. in 5. Tehran: Markaz-i Asnad-i Inqilab-i Islami.Google Scholar
Davies, James C. (1969) “The J-curve of rising and declining satisfactions as a cause of some great revolutions and a contained rebellion,” in Graham, Hugh Davis and Gurr, Ted Robert (eds.) Violence in America. New York: Bantam: 690–730.Google Scholar
Denoeux, Guilan (1993) Urban Unrest in the Middle East: A Comparative Study of Informal Networks in Egypt, Iran, and Lebanon. Albany: State University of New York Press.Google Scholar
Emigh, Rebecca Jean (1997) “The power of negative thinking: The use of negative case methodology in the development of sociological theory.” Theory and Society 26: 649–84.Google Scholar
Fischer, Michael M. J. (1980) Iran: From Religious Dispute to Revolution. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations (1980) Food Balance Sheets. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organisation.Google Scholar
Foran, John (1993) Fragile Resistance: Social Transformation in Iran from 1500 to the Revolution. Boulder, CO: Westview.Google Scholar
Ghandchi-Tehrani, Davoud (1982) “Bazaaris and clergy: Socio-economic origins of radicalism and revolution in Iran.” Ph.D. diss., City University of New York.Google Scholar
Graham, Robert (1980) Iran: The Illusion of Power. Rev. ed. New York: St. Martin’s.Google Scholar
Green, Jerrold M. (1982) Revolution in Iran: The Politics of Counter-mobilization. New York: Praeger.Google Scholar
Gulabdarahʾ;i, Mahmud (1986) Lahzahʾha [Moments]. 3d printing. Tehran: Intisharat-i Kayhan.Google Scholar
Gurr, Ted Robert (1970) Why Men Rebel. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Guzarish-i kamil 1976-i tazahurat-i 15-17 Khurdad ’54 [Complete report on the demonstrations of 5-7 June 1975] (1976) Springfield, MO: Nahzat-i Azadi-yi Iran: Kharij az Kishvar; reproduced in Behn 1984: doc. 20:42; and Dahnavi 1981: 223–47.Google Scholar
“Guzarish-i sharh-i vaqayiʿ-i Qum” [Descriptive account of the Qum events] (1978) Zamimah-yi Khabar-namah [Supplement to The newsletter {Tehran}] 13: 15–21.Google Scholar
Guzarishati az mubarizat-i daliranah-yi mardum-i kharij az mahdudah [Reports of the brave struggles of the people [living] outside the [city] limits] (1977) N.p.: Sazman-i Charikʾha-yi Fadaʾi-yi Khalq-i Iran.Google Scholar
Hajj-Sayyid-Javadi, ʿAli-Asghar (1977) Afzal al-jihad [The virtue of struggle]. 2d printing. N.p.: Intisharat-i Mudaris; reproduced in Behn 1984: doc. 20: 33.Google Scholar
Halliday, Fred (1979) Iran: Dictatorship and Development. Harmondsworth, U.K.: Penguin.Google Scholar
Hetherington, Norriss S. (1982) “Industrialization and revolution in Iran.” Middle East Journal 36: 362–73.Google Scholar
Hooglund, Eric J., ed. (1990) Iran: The Making of U.S. Policy, 1977-1980. Washington, DC, and Alexandria, VA: National Security Archive and Chadwyck-Healey.Google Scholar
Ikani, Azizollah (1987) The Dynamics of Inflation in Iran, 1960–1977. Tilburg, the Netherlands: Tilburg University Press.Google Scholar
Iktishafi, Parviz (1998) Khatirat-i Sargard-i Havayi Parviz Iktishafi [Memoirs of Air Force Major Parviz Iktishafi], ed. Ahmadi, Hamid. Köln, Germany: Murtazavi.Google Scholar
Inqilab-i islami bih ravayit-i asnad-i SAVAK [The Islamic Revolution according to SAVAK documents] (1997–99) 4 vols. Tehran: Surush; Markaz-i Barrisi-yi Asnad-i Tarikhi-yi Vizarat-i Ittila‘at. Google Scholar
International Monetary Fund (IMF) (1980) International Financial Statistics Yearbook, 1980. Washington, DC: IMF.Google Scholar
Ioannides, Christos P. (1984) America’s Iran: Injury and Catharsis. Lanham, MD: University Press of America.Google Scholar
Iran: Vagues d’offensive populaire dans plus de 50 villes [Iran: Waves of the popular offensive in more than 50 cities] (1978) Paris: Union des Etudiants Iraniens en France; reproduced in Behn 1984: doc. 20:73.Google Scholar
Issawi, Charles (1971) The Economic History of Iran, 1800–1914. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Javidan bad khatirah-yi qiyam-i khunin-i Tabriz: Dar-barah-yi mubarizat-i tudahʾi, zimistan 1356 [Long live the memory of the bloody uprising of Tabriz: On the mass struggles of winter 1977–78](ca. 1978) N.p.: Intisharat-i Sazman-i Inqilabi-yi Hizb-i Tudah-yi Iran.Google Scholar
Jazayeri, Ahmad (1988) Economic Adjustment in Oil-Based Economies. Aldershot, U.K.: Avebury.Google Scholar
Kamrava, Mehran (1990) Revolution in Iran. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Karimi-Hakkak, Ahmad (1985) “Protest and perish: A history of the Writers’ Association of Iran.” Iranian Studies 18: 189–229.Google Scholar
Kazemi, Farhad (1980a) Poverty and Revolution in Iran. New York: New York University Press.Google Scholar
Kazemi, Farhad (1980b) “Urban migrants in the revolution.” Iranian Studies 13: 257–77.Google Scholar
Keddie, Nikki R. (1981) Roots of Revolution: An Interpretive History of Modern Iran. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Keddie, Nikki R. (1983) “Iranian revolutions in comparative perspective.” American Historical Review 88: 579–98.Google Scholar
Khomeini, Ruhullah (1977) Matn-i sukhanrani [Text of the speech]. Paris: Ruhaniyun-i Mubariz-i Iran; reproduced in Behn 1984: doc. 20:51.Google Scholar
Khomeini, Ruhullah (1978) “Ayatollah Khomeini’s letter to the Iranian people, November 12, 1977,” trans. Liberation Movement of Iran.Review of Iranian Political Economy and History (RIPEH) 2: 105–10.Google Scholar
Khomeini, Ruhullah (1981) Islam and Revolution, trans. Hamid Algar. Berkeley, CA: Mizan.Google Scholar
Khomeini, Ruhullah (1982a) Majmuʿahʾi az maktubat, sukhanraniʾha, payamʾha va fatavi-yi Imam Khomeini [A collection of letters, speeches, messages, and legal opinions of Imam Khomeini], ed. Dahnavi, Muhammad. Tehran: Intisharat-i Chapkhass.Google Scholar
Khomeini, Ruhullah (1982b) Zamimah-yi Majmuʿahʾi az maktubat, sukhanraniʾha, payamʾha va fataviyi Imam Khomeini [Supplement to A collection of letters, speeches, messages, and legal opinions of Imam Khomeini], ed. Dahnavi, Muhammad. Tehran: Intisharat-i Chapkhass.Google Scholar
Khomeini, Ruhullah (1991) Sahifah-yi nur: Majmuʿah-yi rahnamudʾha-yi Hazrat Imam Khomeini [The book of light: Collection of the guidance of the honorable Imam Khomeini]. 2d ed. 11 vols. Tehran: Sazman-i Madarik-i Farhang-i Inqilab-i Islami, Gruh-i Intisharat.Google Scholar
Kian-Thiébault, Azadeh (1998) Secularization of Iran. Paris: Diffusion Peeters.Google Scholar
King, Gary, Keohane, Robert O., and Verba, Sidney (1994) Designing Social Inquiry: Scientific Inference in Qualitative Research. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Kurzman, Charles (1994) “A dynamic view of resources: Evidence from the Iranian revolution.” Research in Social Movements, Conflicts and Change 17: 53–84.Google Scholar
Kurzman, Charles (1996) “Structural opportunities and perceived opportunities in social-movement theory: Evidence from the Iranian revolution of 1979.” American Sociological Review 61: 153–70.Google Scholar
Kurzman, Charles (2003) “Une déploration pour Mustafa: Les bases quotidiennes de l’activisme politique” [Mourning for Mustafa: Everyday bases of political activism], in Bennani-Chraïbi, Mounia and Fillieule, Olivier (eds.) Résistances et protestation dans les sociétés musulmanes [Resistance and protest in Muslim societies]. Paris: Presses de Sciences Po: 177–96.Google Scholar
Kurzman, Charles (forthcoming) The “Unthinkable” Revolution in Iran, 1977-1979. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Kuzichkin, Vladimir (1990) Inside the KGB: My Life in Soviet Espionage, trans. Beattie, Thomas B.. New York: Pantheon.Google Scholar
Lafue-Veron, Madeleine (1978) Voyage au pays de la peur, Iran 1978 [Voyage to the Land of Fear, Iran 1978]. Geneva: Comité Suisse de Défense des Prisonniers Politiques Iraniens.Google Scholar
Liu, Michael Tien-Lung (1988) “States and urban revolutions: Explaining the revolutionary outcomes in Iran and Poland.” Theory and Society 17: 179–209.Google Scholar
Looney, Robert E. (1982) Economic Origins of the Iranian Revolution. New York: Pergamon.Google Scholar
Mahoney, James (2000) “Strategies of causal inference in small-N analysis.” Sociological Methods and Research 28: 387–424.Google Scholar
Majidi, ʿAbdolmajid (1998) Khatirat-i ʿAbdolmajid Majidi [The memoirs of Abdolmadjid Madjidi], ed. Ladjevardi, Habib. Cambridge: Iranian Oral History Project, Center for Middle Eastern Studies, Harvard University.Google Scholar
McAdam, Doug (1982) Political Process and the Development of Black Insurgency, 1930–1970. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Milani, Mohsen (1994) The Making of Iran’s Islamic Revolution. 2d ed. Boulder, CO: Westview.Google Scholar
Mill, John Stuart (1949) A System of Logic. 8th ed. London: Longmans, Green.Google Scholar
Mohammedi-Nejad, Hassan (1977) “The Iranian parliamentary elections of 1975.” International Journal of Middle East Studies 8: 103–16.Google Scholar
Moin, Baqer (1999) Khomeini: The Life of the Ayatollah. London: I. B. Tauris.Google Scholar
Momayezi, Nasser (1986) “Economic correlates of political violence: the case of Iran.” Middle East Journal 40: 68–81.Google Scholar
Moshiri, Farrokh (1985) The State and Social Revolution in Iran. New York: Peter Lang.Google Scholar
Nabard-i tudah’ha: Chand guzarish az Iran [The struggle of the masses: Several reports from Iran] (1978) Frankfurt am Main: Ittihadiyah-yi Danishjuyan-i Irani dar Alman.Google Scholar
Pakdaman, Nasir (1986) “Ta Tabriz: Nazari bih ruyidad’ha-yi inqilab-i Iran ta 29 Bahman 1356” [To Tabriz: A view of the events of the Iranian revolution up to 18 February 1978]. Chishm-andaz [Perspective] 1: 61–94.Google Scholar
Pahlavi, Mohammad Reza (1980) Answer to History. New York: Stein and Day.Google Scholar
Parsa, Misagh (1989) The Social Origins of the Iranian Revolution. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.Google Scholar
Parsons, Anthony (1984) The Pride and the Fall: Iran, 1974-1979. London: Jonathan Cape.Google Scholar
Parvin, Manoucher, and Zamani, Amir N. (1979) “Political economy of growth and destruction: A statistical interpretation of the Iranian case.” Iranian Studies 12: 43–78.Google Scholar
Penn World Table, Mark 5.6 (1994) Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research [distributor].Google Scholar
Pishtazan-i shahadat dar inqilab-i Sivvum [The front ranks of martyrdom in the third revolution] (1981) Qum, Iran: Daftar-i Intisharat-i Islami.Google Scholar
Posadas, J. (1979) The Permanent Process of the Revolution in Iran. London: Scientific, Cultural, and Political Editions.Google Scholar
Carter, Jimmy Public Papers of the Presidents: 1977 (1978) Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.Google Scholar
Radjavi, Kazem (1983) La révolution iranienne et les moudjahedines [The Iranian revolution and the Mujahidin]. Paris: Editions Anthropos.Google Scholar
Ragin, Charles C. (1987) The Comparative Method. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Richards, Helmut (1978) “Carter’s human rights policy and the Pahlavi dictatorship,” in Nobari, Ali-Reza (ed.) Iran Erupts. Stanford, CA: Iran-American Documentation Group: 90–114.Google Scholar
Rubin, Barry (1981) Paved with Good Intentions: The American Experience and Iran. New York: Penguin.Google Scholar
Ruhani (Ziyarati), Hamid (1982) Barʾrasi va tahlili az nahzat-i Imam Khomeini [Explanation and analysis of Imam Khomeini’s movement]. 11th ed., vol. 1. Tehran: Intisharat-i Rah-i Imam.Google Scholar
Saduqi, Mahmud (1983) Majmuʿah-yi ittilaʿiyahʾha-yi sivvumin shahid-i mihrab Hazrat Ayatullah Saduqi [Collection of pronouncements of the third holy martyr, the honorable Ayatullah Saduqi]. Tehran: Vizarat-i Irshad-i Islami.Google Scholar
Safahati az tarikh-i muʿasir-i Iran: Asnad-i Nahzat-i Azadi-yi Iran [Pages from the contemporary history of Iran: Documents of the Liberation Movement of Iran] (1984) Vol.9, pts. 1 and 2. Tehran: Nahzat-i Azadi-yi Iran.Google Scholar
Saikal, Amin (1980) The Rise and Fall of the Shah. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Salehi, M. M. (1988) Insurgency through Culture and Religion: The Islamic Revolution of Iran. New York: Praeger.Google Scholar
Salehi-Isfahani, Djavad (1989) “The political economy of credit subsidy in Iran, 1973-1978.” International Journal of Middle East Studies 21: 359–79.Google Scholar
Sanjabi, Karim (1989) Umidʾha va na-umidʾha: Khatarat-i siyasi-yi Duktur Karim Sanjabi [Hopes and despairs: Political memoirs of Dr. Karim Sanjabi]. London: Jebhe; Intisharat-i Milliyun-i Iran.Google Scholar
SAVAK va ruhaniyat: Bulitinʾha-yi nubah-yi SAVAK az tarikh-i 49/12/25 ta 57/6/30 [SAVAK and the religious scholars: Periodic SAVAK bulletins from 16 March 1971 to 19 September 1978] (1992) Tehran: Hawzah-yi Hunari-yi Sazman-i Tablighat-i Islami; Daftar-i Adabiyat-i Inqilab-i Islami; Markaz-i Asnad-i Vizarat-i Ittila’at.Google Scholar
Sazman-i Charikʾha-yi Fadaʾi-yi Khalq-i Iran (1978) Girami bad 19 Bahman [Cherished Be 8 February]. N.p.: Confederation of Iranian Students.Google Scholar
Shahidi digar az ruhaniyat [Another martyr from the clergy] (ca. 1977) Najaf, Iraq: Ruhaniyat-i Mubariz-i Irani, Kharij az Kishvar, Najaf-i Ashraf.Google Scholar
Shirkhani, ʿAli (1998a) Hamasah-yi 17 Khurdad 1354-i Madrasah-yi Fayziyah [The Fayziyah Seminary uprising of 7 June 1975]. Tehran: Intisharat-i Markaz-i Asnad-i Inqilab-i Islami.Google Scholar
Shirkhani, ‘Ali (1998b) Hamasah-yi 19 Dey [The Uprising of 9 January]. Tehran: Intisharat-i Markaz-i Asnad-i Inqilab-i Islami.Google Scholar
Sick, Gary (1985) All Fall Down: America’s Tragic Encounter with Iran. New York: Random House.Google Scholar
Smelser, Neil J. (1976) Comparative Methods in the Social Sciences. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.Google Scholar
Snow, David A., and Marshall, Susan E. (1984) “Cultural imperialism, social movements, and the Islamic revival.” Research in Social Movements, Conflicts and Change 7: 131–52.Google Scholar
Stempel, John D. (1981) Inside the Iranian Revolution. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press.Google Scholar
Taheri, Amir (1986) The Spirit of Allah: Khomeini and the Islamic Revolution. Bethesda, MD: Adler and Adler.Google Scholar
Thaiss, Gustav (1971) “The bazaar as a case study of religious and social change,” in Yar-Shater, Ehsan (ed.) Iran Faces the Seventies. New York: Praeger: 189–216.Google Scholar
Yaran-i Imam bih ravayit-i asnad-i SAVAK [The friends of the Imam according to SAVAK documents] (1998–2001) 21 vols. Tehran; Markaz-i Barrasi-yi Asnad-i Tarikhi-yi Vizarat-i Ittila’at.Google Scholar
Zabih, Sepehr (1979) Iran’s Revolutionary Upheaval. San Francisco, CA: Albany.Google Scholar
Zindah bad junbish-i tudah’i-yi Aban va Azar mah 56 [Long live the mass movement of November and December 1977] (ca.1978) N.p.: Intisharat-i Sazman-i Inqilabi-yi Hizb-i Tudah-yi Iran.Google Scholar