Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-dzt6s Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-19T03:08:47.022Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

COGNITIVE CORRUPTION AND DELIBERATIVE DEMOCRACY

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  09 May 2019

Adrian Blau
Adrian Blau*
Affiliation:
Political Economy, King’s College London
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract:

This essay defends deliberative democracy by reviving a largely forgotten idea of corruption, which I call “cognitive corruption”—the distortion of judgment. I analyze different versions of this idea in the work of Machiavelli, Hobbes, Bentham, and Mill. Historical analysis also helps me rethink orthodox notions of corruption in two ways: I define corruption in terms of public duty rather than public office, and I argue that corruption can be both by and for political parties. In deliberative democracy, citizens can take off their party hats and may be more influenced by the force of the better argument than in party democracy.

Keywords

Benthamcorruptiondeliberative democracydemocracyHobbesMachiavelliMillparty corruptionparty democracypolitical parties
Type
Research Article
Information
Social Philosophy and Policy , Volume 35 , Issue 2 , Winter 2018 , pp. 198 - 220
Copyright
Copyright © Social Philosophy and Policy Foundation 2019 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Footnotes

*

For comments and criticisms on an earlier version of this essay, I thank my anonymous reviewers, Donald Bello Hutt, Michael Johnston, David Lebow, Helen McCabe, Rob Sparling, David Schmidtz, Philip Schofield, James Shafe, participants at the European Hobbes Society Workshop at the EUI, Florence (27-28 April, 2017), and the other contributors to the present volume.

References

1 Buchan, Bruce and Hill, Lisa, An Intellectual History of Political Corruption (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2014), 16–19, 27–43.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

2 For overviews, see Chambers, Simone, “Deliberative Democracy Theory,” Annual Review of Political Science 6 (2003): 307–26;CrossRefGoogle Scholar Michelbach, Philip, “Deliberative Democracy,” in Michael Gibbons, ed., The Encyclopedia of Political Thought (Oxford: Wiley, 2014), 842–51.Google Scholar

3 See https://www.participedia.net.

4 For a helpful summary, including the views of writers like Schattschneider and Aldrich, see Stokes, Susan, “Political Parties and Democracy,” Annual Review of Political Science 2 (1999): 243–46, 263–64.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

5 See, e.g., Pennington, Mark, “Democracy and the Deliberative Conceit,” Critical Review 22 (2010): 159–84.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

6 Goodin, Robert, “Sequencing Deliberative Moments,” Acta Politica 40 (2005): 193–94.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

7 On “deliberative systems,” see Parkinson, John and Mansbridge, Jane, eds., Deliberative Systems: Deliberative Democracy at the Large Scale (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012).CrossRefGoogle Scholar

8 Ratner, R. S., “Communicative Rationality in the Citizens’ Assembly and Referendum Processes,” in Warren, Mark and Pearse, Hilary, eds., Designing Deliberative Democracy: The British Columbia Citizens’ Assembly (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008), 157.Google Scholar

9 Talisse, Robert, “Deliberation,” in Estlund, David, ed., The Oxford Handbook of Political Philosophy (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012), 218.Google Scholar

10 Muirhead, Russell, The Promise of Party in a Polarized Age (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2014), 80–110.Google Scholar See also Rosenblum, Nancy, On The Side of the Angels: An Appreciation of Parties and Partisanship (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2008), 306–11.Google Scholar

11 Muirhead, Promise of Party, 98.

12 Ibid., xii, 110–11, 249–55.

13 Rosenblum, On the Side of the Angels, 267–69, 294–311.

14 Warren, Mark, “What Does Corruption Mean in a Democracy?” American Journal of Political Science 48 (2004): 328–43.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

15 Thompson, Dennis, “Mediated Corruption: The Case of The Keating Five,” American Political Science Review 87 (1993): 369–81;CrossRefGoogle Scholar Thompson, Dennis, “Two Concepts of Corruption,” Edmond J. Safra Working Papers no. 16 (2013).CrossRefGoogle Scholar

16 Rosenblum On the Side of the Angels. See also White, Jonathan and Ypi, Lea, The Meaning of Partisanship (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013), chap. 2.Google Scholar

17 For helpful overviews, see Heywood, Paul, “Political Corruption: Problems and Perspectives,” Political Studies 45 (1997): 421–26;CrossRefGoogle Scholar Johnston, Michael, “The Definitions Debate: Old Conflicts in New Guises,” in Jain, Arvind, ed., The Political Economy of Corruption (London: Routledge, 2001), 11–31;Google Scholar Dawood, Yasmin, “Classifying Corruption,” Duke Journal of Constitutional Law and Public Policy 9 (2014): 106–20.Google Scholar

18 As defined, for example, by Collier, Michael, “Explaining Corruption: An Institutional Choice Approach,” Crime, Law and Social Change 38 (2002): 1;CrossRefGoogle Scholar Eigen, Peter, “Corruption in a Globalized World,” SAIS Review 22 (2004): 46;Google Scholar Guo, Yong, “Corruption in Transitional China: An Empirical Analysis,” The China Quarterly 194 (2008): 349;CrossRefGoogle Scholar Transparency International, “What is Corruption?” http://www.transparency.org/what-is-corruption#define (2017), accessed 26 February 2017.Google Scholar

19 Corbridge, Stuart, “Corruption in India,” in Kohli, Atul and Singh, Prerna, eds., Routledge Handbook of Indian Politics (London: Routledge, 2013), 225–27.Google Scholar

20 Eigen, “Corruption in a Globalized World,” 48–50; Escaleras, Monica and Register, Charles, “Public Sector Corruption and Natural Hazards,” Public Finance Review 44 (2016): 746–68.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

21 Teachout, Zephyr, Corruption in America: From Benjamin Franklin’s Snuff Box to Citizens United (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2014), 349.Google Scholar

22 Ekeh, Peter, “Colonialism and the Two Publics in Africa: A Theoretical Statement,” Comparative Studies in Society and History 17 (1975): 91–112;CrossRefGoogle Scholar Ruud, Arild Engelsen, “Corruption as Everyday Practice. The Public-Private Divide in Local Indian Society,” Forum for Development Studies 27 (2000): 271–94;CrossRefGoogle Scholar Wedel, Janine, “Corruption and Organized Crime in Post-Communist States: New Ways of Manifesting Old Patterns,” Trends in Organized Crime 7 (2001): 18–37, 47–48.Google Scholar For more examples see Harrison, Elizabeth, “Unpacking the Anti-Corruption Agenda: Dilemmas for Anthropologists,” Oxford Development Studies 34 (2006): 20–22.CrossRefGoogle Scholar For a Derridean critique, see Polzer, Tara, Corruption: Deconstructing the World Bank Discourse (LSE Development Studies Institute working paper series 1, no. 18, 2001).Google Scholar

23 Lambsdorff, Johann Graf, The Institutional Economics of Corruption and Reform: Theory, Evidence, and Policy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007), 16;CrossRefGoogle Scholar Nye, Joseph, “Corruption and Political Development: A Cost-Benefit Analysis,” American Political Science Review 61 (1967): 419.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

24 Brooks, Robert, “The Nature of Political Corruption,” Political Science Quarterly 24 (1909): 15;CrossRefGoogle Scholar Porta, Donatella Della and Mény, Yves, “Introduction: Democracy and Corruption,” in Porta, Donatella Della and Mény, Yves, eds., Democracy and Corruption in Europe (London: Pinter, 1997), 4;Google Scholar Hopkin, Jonathan, “Political Parties, Political Corruption, and the Economic Theory of Democracy,” Crime, Law and Social Change 27 (1997): 256;CrossRefGoogle Scholar Beetham, David, Byrne, Iain, Weir, Stuart, and Ngan, Pauline, Democracy under Blair: A Democratic Audit of the United Kingdom (London: Politico’s, 2002), 170;Google Scholar Heidenheimer, Arnold, “Parties, Campaign Finance and Political Corruption: Tracing Long-Term Comparative Dynamics,” in Arnold Heidenheimer and Michael Johnston, eds., Political Corruption: Concepts and Contexts, 3rd ed. (London: Transaction Publishers, 2002), 764–65;Google Scholar Philp, Mark, “The Definition of Political Corruption,” in Heywood, Paul, ed., Routledge Handbook of Political Corruption (Abingdon: Routledge, 2015), 21–22;Google Scholar Philp, Mark and David-Barrett, Elizabeth, “Realism About Political Corruption,” Annual Review of Political Science 18 (2015): 394;CrossRefGoogle Scholar Kurer, Oskar, “Definitions of Corruption,” in Heywood, Paul, ed., Routledge Handbook of Political Corruption (Abingdon: Routledge, 2015), 35–36.Google Scholar

25 A point made by Warren, “What Does Corruption Mean in a Democracy?” 331.

26 Dobel, Patrick, “The Corruption of a State,” American Political Science Review 72 (1978): 958–73;CrossRefGoogle Scholar Teachout, Corruption in America, 51–53.

27 Selinger, William, “Le Grand Mal de l’Époque: Tocqueville on French Political Corruption,” History of European Ideas 42 (2016): 74.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

28 Hayek, Friedrich, Law, Legislation and Liberty: A New Statement of the Liberal Principles of Justice and Political Economy, Vol. 3 (London: Routledge, 1982), 4–5, 27, 31, 99, 103, 134.Google Scholar

29 Hellman, Deborah, “Defining Corruption and Constitutionalizing Democracy,” Michigan Law Review 111 (2013): 1391–96;Google Scholar see also Bull, Martin and Newell, James, “New Avenues in the Study of Political Corruption,” Crime, Law and Social Change 27 (1997), 173–74;CrossRefGoogle Scholar Philp, Mark, “Defining Political Corruption,” Political Studies 45 (1997), 453–57;CrossRefGoogle Scholar Ceva, Emanuela and Ferretti, Maria, “Liberal Democratic Institutions and the Damages of Political Corruption,” Ethics Forum 9 (2014): 127.Google Scholar

30 Kurer, Oskar, “Corruption: An Alternative Approach to Its Definition and Measurement,” Political Studies 53 (2005): 230.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

31 Bull and Newell, “New Avenues,” 174.

32 Dawood, “Classifying Corruption,” 108–11.

33 Warren, “What Does Corruption Mean in a Democracy?” 333–34; see also Warren, Mark, “The Meaning of Corruption in Democracies,” in Heywood, Paul, ed., Routledge Handbook of Political Corruption (Abingdon: Routledge, 2015), 42–55.Google Scholar

34 Warren, “What Does Corruption Mean in a Democracy?” 332–34.

35 Warren, “The Meaning of Corruption,” 52; see also “What Does Corruption Mean in a Democracy?” 338.

36 Habermas, Jürgen, Moral Consciousness and Communicative Action, trans. Lenhardt, Christian and Nicholsen, Shierry Weber (Cambridge: Polity, 1990), 65–66.Google Scholar

37 Kurer, “Corruption.” See also Dobel, “The Corruption of a State,” 960–61, on corruption as the undermining of disinterestedness/impartiality.

38 Blau, Adrian, “Hobbes on Corruption,” History of Political Thought 30 (2009): 606–11.Google Scholar

39 Blau, “Hobbes on Corruption.”

40 Buchan and Hill, An Intellectual History of Political Corruption, 16.

41 But see Hampshire, Stuart, “Public and Private Morality,” in Hampshire, Stuart, ed., Public and Private Morality (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1978), 51;CrossRefGoogle Scholar Talisse, Robert, Democracy and Moral Conflict (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009), 87, 106, 122, 165;CrossRefGoogle Scholar Hellman, “Defining Corruption,” 1388, 1397–99.

42 Pitkin, Hanna, Fortune is a Woman: Gender and Politics in the Thought of Niccolò Machiavelli, extended edition (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999), 25.Google Scholar See, for example, Machiavelli, Discourses on Livy, trans. Harvey Mansfield and Nathan Tarcov (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1996), book 1 chapter 6, p. 23; book 1, chap. 19, p. 52; book 2, chap. 2, pp. 131–32.

43 Dobel, “Corruption of a State.”

44 Machiavelli, , The Comedies of Machiavelli, ed. and trans. Sices, David and Atkinson, James (Indianapolis, IN: Hackett, 2007), 135.Google Scholar

45 On cognitive corruption preceding political corruption, see likewise Blau, “Hobbes on Corruption,” 605–6.

46 Machiavelli, Discourses 3.8, 1, 237. (Hereafter, references to Machiavelli follow the following format: book. chapter, page.) But compare Machiavelli, Florentine Histories, trans. Laura Banfield and Harvey Mansfield (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1988) 4.24, 170, which equates corruption with bribery.

47 Machiavelli, Discourses 1.17, 47; see also 1.35, 76; 1.42, 90; 3.8, 237.

48 Ibid., preface to book 2, 124.

49 Ibid., 1.47, 96.

50 Machiavelli, Florentine Histories 7.29, 307.

51 Ibid., 3.5, 109–12.

52 Shumer, Sara, “Machiavelli: Republican Politics and its Corruption,” Political Theory 7 (1979): 9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar For a contemporary variant of this idea, see Satz, Debra, “Markets, Privatization, and Corruption,” Social Research 80 (2013): 996, 998–1006.Google Scholar

53 Pitkin, Fortune is a Woman, 48–49; Hannah Arendt, On Revolution (London: Penguin, 1990), 252.

54 Skinner, Quentin, “The Republican Ideal of Political Liberty,” in Bock, Gisela, Skinner, Quentin and Viroli, Maurizio, eds., Machiavelli and Republicanism (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 304.Google Scholar

55 Skinner, Quentin, “Machiavelli’s Discorsi and the Pre-Humanist Origins of Republican Ideas,” in Bock, Gisela, Skinner, Quentin and Viroli, Maurizio, eds., Machiavelli and Republicanism (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 138,Google Scholar quoting Machiavelli, Discourses 1.7. See also Buchan and Hill, An Intellectual History of Political Corruption, 94–95.

56 Machiavelli, Florentine Histories 2.4, 57.

57 Ibid., 3.5, 110–11; emphasis added.

58 Machiavelli, “A Discourse on Remodelling the Government of Florence,” in Machiavelli, The Chief Works and Others, Vol. 1, trans. Allan Gilbert (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1958), 103, 109.

59 On the religious connotations of sette, see Mansfield, Harvey, book review, Renaissance Quarterly 28 (1975): 68.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

60 See, e.g., Muirhead, Russell, “Can Deliberative Democracy Be Partisan?” Critical Review 22 (2010): 139–40;CrossRefGoogle Scholar Muirhead, Promise of Party, 252.

61 Hanasz, Waldemar, “The Common Good in Machiavelli,” History of Political Thought 31 (2010): 66–67, 84–85.Google Scholar

62 Barry, Brian, Political Argument (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1965), 196–206.Google Scholar

63 See also Skinner, “Republican Ideal,” 304.

64 Ibid., 309; emphasis added.

65 Rosenblum, On the Side of the Angels, 25–35.

66 E.g., Machiavelli, Florentine Histories 3.5, 110.

67 Bentham, Jeremy, Collected Works, ed. Bowring, John (Edinburgh: William Tait, 1838–43), volume 10, 72.Google Scholar

68 For example, Hardin, Russell, “From Power to Order, From Hobbes to Hume,” The Journal of Political Philosophy 1 (1993): 69–81.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

69 This is the main approach in my ongoing book project, Hobbes’s Failed Science of Politics and Ethics. Hobbes can of course be read both forward and backward, as for example with Deborah Baumgold, Hobbes’s Political Theory (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988).

70 Peter Euben, “Corruption,” in Terence Ball, James Farr and Russell Hanson, eds., Political Innovation and Conceptual Change (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press), 231–35; Teachout, Corruption in America, 43.

71 For an analysis of all of Hobbes’s comments on corruption, see Blau, “Hobbes on Corruption.”

72 See, e.g., Peck, Linda Levy, Court Patronage and Corruption in Early Stuart England (London: Unwin Hyman, 1990), 165.Google Scholar

73 Hobbes, Leviathan, ed. Richard Tuck (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press), chap. 26, para. 24, p. 192 (Hereafter, references to Hobbes will be listed: chapter. paragraph, and page); 26.27, 195.

74 Malcolm, Noel, “Thomas Hobbes: Liberal Illiberal,” Journal of the British Academy 4 (2016): 122–25.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

75 Hobbes, Leviathan, 27.14, 205.

76 Ibid., 15.24 and 15.26, 108; see also Thomas Hobbes, On the Citizen, ed. Richard Tuck and Michael Silverthorne (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998) 3.15, 50. On equity in Hobbes, see Olsthoorn, Johan, “Hobbes’s Account of Distributive Justice as Equity,” British Journal for the History of Philosophy 21 (2013): 13–33.CrossRefGoogle Scholar And see note 37 above for Kurer’s and Dobel’s conceptualizations of corruption in terms of partiality.

77 Thomas Hobbes, Opera Latina: Thomae Hobbes Malmesburiensis Opera Philosophica Quae Latine Scripsit Omnia, ed. William Molesworth (London: John Bohn, 1839–45), volume 3, 120; Hobbes, Leviathan 15.32, 109; see also On the Citizen 3.21–3.22, 52.

78 Hobbes, Leviathan 14.30, 98; see also On the Citizen 2.19, 40; Opera Latina 3, 110.

79 Hobbes, On the Citizen 13.17, 152; emphasis added.

80 Brooks, “The Nature of Political Corruption,” 13; see also 3–4.

81 E.g., Punch, Maurice, “Police Corruption and its Prevention,” European Journal on Criminal Policy and Research 8 (2000): 302;CrossRefGoogle Scholar deLeon, Peter and Green, Mark, “Political Corruption: Establishing the Parameters,” Research in Public Policy Analysis and Management 13 (2004): 233;Google Scholar Senior, Ian, Corruption–the World’s Big C: Cases, Causes, Consequences, Cures (London: The Institute for Economic Affairs, 2006), 27, 30–32.Google Scholar For Bentham, see Section V below.

82 For a detailed analysis of Hobbes and his contemporaries on counsel, see Paul, Joanne, “Counsel, Command and Crisis,” Hobbes Studies 28 (2015): 103–31.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

83 Skinner, Quentin, Reason and Rhetoric in the Philosophy of Hobbes (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996).CrossRefGoogle Scholar

84 E.g., Hobbes, Thomas White’s De Mundo Examined, trans. Harold Whitmore Jones (London: Bradford University Press, 1976), chap. 38 sec. 16, p. 476. For more examples in Hobbes, see Blau, “Hobbes on Corruption,” 607.

85 Hobbes, Leviathan 25.2–25.4, 176–77; 25.6–25.9, 177–78.

86 Ibid., 25.6, 177.

87 Dryzek, John, Deliberative Democracy and Beyond: Liberals, Critics, Contestations (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000), 52–53, 67, 69, 167–68;Google Scholar Krause, Sharon, Civil Passions: Moral Sentiment and Democratic Deliberation (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2008), 40–43, 146–74.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

88 Cohen, Joshua, “Procedure and Substance in Deliberative Democracy,” in Benhabib, Seyla, ed., Democracy and Difference: Contesting the Boundaries of the Political (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1996), 99–101.Google Scholar

89 Blau, “Hobbes on Corruption,” 602–3.

90 Douglas, Jesseph, Squaring the Circle: the War Between Hobbes and Wallis (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999), 247–92.Google Scholar

91 Blau, “Hobbes on Corruption,” 602–3.

92 Skinner, Reason and Rhetoric, 298.

93 Hobbes, Thomas, Human Nature and De Corpore Politico, ed. Gaskin, J. C. A. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994), Epistle Dedicatory, 19.Google Scholar

94 Luskin, Robert, Fishkin, James, and Jowell, Roger, “Considered Opinions: Deliberative Polling in Britain,” British Journal of Political Science 32 (2003): 467–74.Google Scholar

95 Blais, André, Carty, Kenneth, and Fournier, Patrick, “Do Citizens’ Assemblies Make Reasoned Choices?” in Warren, Mark and Pearse, Hilary, eds., Designing Deliberative Democracy: The British Columbia Citizens’ Assembly (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008), 131–35.Google Scholar

96 See especially Oren Ben-Dor, Constitutional Limits and the Public Sphere: A Critical Study of Bentham’s Constitutionalism (Oxford: Hart Publishing, 2000), chap. 6. But for a critique of Ben-Dor’s interpretation, see Shafe, James, Counting and Talking: A Benthamite View of Public Reasoning (University College London PhD thesis, 2016), 8, 105–16.Google Scholar

97 E.g., Bentham, “Constitutional Code Rationale,” in Jeremy Bentham, First Principles Preparatory to Constitutional Code, ed. Philip Schofield (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989), 326.

98 E.g., Bentham, “Economy as Applied to Office,” in Jeremy Bentham, First Principles Preparatory to Constitutional Code, ed. Philip Schofield (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989), 17.

99 Langford, Paul, A Polite and Commercial People: England, 1727–1783 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989), 716.Google Scholar

100 Bentham, “Constitutional Code Rationale,” 270–71.

101 Bentham, “Economy as Applied to Office,” 17.

102 Bentham, “Plan of Parliamentary Reform,” in Jeremy Bentham, Collected Works, ed. John Bowring (Edinburgh: William Tait, 1838–43), volume 3, 507.

103 James Shafe, Counting and Talking, 8, 64–70, 193, 204.

104 Bentham, “Constitutional Code Rationale,” 261; Bentham, “Jeremy Bentham to his Fellow-Citizens of France,” in Jeremy Bentham, Collected Works, ed. John Bowring (Edinburgh: William Tait, 1838–43), volume 4, 433; Bentham, “Art of Packing,” in Jeremy Bentham, Collected Works, ed. John Bowring (Edinburgh: William Tait, 1838–43), volume 6, at several points.

105 Bentham, “Fellow-Citizens,” 432.

106 Bentham, “Constitutional Code,” in Jeremy Bentham, Collected Works, ed. John Bowring (Edinburgh: William Tait, 1838–43), volume 9, 48.

107 Quoted in Hume, L. J., Bentham and Bureaucracy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981), 184–85;CrossRefGoogle Scholar see also “Plan of Parliamentary Reform,” 450, 466.

108 Bentham, Jeremy, An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation, ed. Burns, J. H. and Hart, H. L. A. (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1996), chap. 7 sec. 5, 75.Google Scholar

109 Bentham, “Fellow-Citizens,” 433.

110 Ibid., 433; Jeremy Bentham, The Book of Fallacies, ed. Philip Schofield (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015), 464; “Constitutional Code Rationale,” 261.

111 Bentham, “Plan of Parliamentary Reform,” 482; emphasis removed.

112 Bentham, “Fellow-Citizens,” 433; emphasis removed.

113 Bentham, “Supreme Operative,” in Jeremy Bentham, First Principles Preparatory to Constitutional Code, ed. Philip Schofield (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989), 224.

114 Ibid., 204.

115 E.g., Bentham, “Economy as Applied to Office,” 24.

116 Schofield, Philip, “Jeremy Bentham on Political Corruption: A Critique of the First Report of the Nolan Committee,” Current Legal Problems 49 (1996): 400–401.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

117 Bentham, “Plan of Parliamentary Reform,” 478.

118 E.g., Dahl, Robert, Democracy and its Critics (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1989).Google Scholar

119 Bentham, “Constitutional Code Rationale,” 255; “Economy as Applied to Office,” 17–19; Bentham, “Rationale of Judicial Evidence,” in Jeremy Bentham, Collected Works, ed. John Bowring (Edinburgh: William Tait, 1838–43), volume 7, 213.

120 Bentham, “Constitutional Code Rationale,” 255–57.

121 Bentham, “Plan of Parliamentary Reform,” 493–94.

122 Bentham, “Constitutional Code Rationale,” 264.

123 Bentham, “Economy as Applied to Office,” 21–22.

124 Bentham, “Plan of Parliamentary Reform,” 507; see also “Constitutional Code,” 78; “Economy as Applied to Office,” 44; Schofield, “Jeremy Bentham on Political Corruption,” 398.

125 Bentham, “Fellow-Citizens,” 436; emphasis removed.

126 Bentham, “Appendix A: Division of Power,” in Bentham, Jeremy, Rights, Representation, and Reform: Nonsense Upon Stilts and Other Writings on the French Revolution, ed. Schofield, Philip, Pease-Watkin, Catherine, and Blamires, Cyprian (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002), 409.Google Scholar On corruption as improper dependence, see Lessig, Lawrence, “What an Originalist Would Understand ‘Corruption’ to Mean,” California Law Review 102 (2014): 5–11;Google Scholar see also Sparling, Robert, “Political Corruption and the Concept of Dependence in Republican Thought,” Political Theory 41 (2013), 618–47;CrossRefGoogle Scholar Teachout, Corruption in America, 53–55.

127 For a summary of Bentham’s wide-ranging account, see Schofield, Philip, Utility and Democracy: The Political Thought of Jeremy Bentham (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006), 301–3, 348–49.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

128 Bentham, “Constitutional Code,” 611.

129 Hayek, Friedrich, New Studies in Philosophy, Politics, Economics, and the History of Ideas (London: Routledge, 1978), 160–61.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

130 Shafe, Counting and Talking, 194–95.

131 Ibid., 199–216.

132 Quoted in Mack, Mary, Jeremy Bentham: An Odyssey of Ideas (New York: Columbia University Press, 1962), 422.Google Scholar

133 Bentham, “Identification of Interests,” in Bentham, Jeremy, First Principles Preparatory to Constitutional Code, ed. Schofield, Philip (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989), 131.Google Scholar

134 Peck, Court Patronage, 1–2.

135 Quoted in Mack, Bentham, 422–23.

136 Bentham, Book of Fallacies, 201.

137 E.g., Mill, “Considerations on Representative Government,” in Mill, J. S., Collected Works, ed. Robson, J. M. (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1963–91), vol. 19, chap. 3, p. 402.Google Scholar

138 Mill, J. S., Collected Works, ed. Robson, J. M. (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1963–91), vol. 6, p. 244.Google Scholar

139 Ibid., 477.

140 Donner, Wendy, “Mill’s Moral and Political Philosophy,” in Donner, Wendy and Fumerton, Richard, Mill (Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell, 2009), 117.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

141 Mill, “On Liberty,” in Mill, J. S., On Liberty and Other Writings, ed. Collini, Stefan (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), chap. 3, para. 13, pp. 66–67.Google Scholar

142 Mill, “Considerations on Representative Government,” 2, 395.

143 Donner, “Mill’s Moral and Political Philosophy,” 107. On relational equality, see Morales, Maria, “The Corrupting Influence of Power,” in Morales, Maria, ed., Mill’s The Subjection of Women: Critical Essays (Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 2005), 99–100.Google Scholar

144 Mill, “The Subjection of Women,” in Mill, J. S., On Liberty and Other Writings, ed. Collini, Stefan (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), chap. 2 para. 5, p. 154.Google Scholar

145 Ibid., 3.25, 193; 2.4, 153.

146 Ibid., 2.9, 158.

147 Mill, “Considerations on Representative Government,” 6, 445.

148 Blaug, Ricardo, “Cognition in a Hierarchy,” Contemporary Political Theory 6 (2007): 37;CrossRefGoogle Scholar for more analysis see Blaug, Ricardo, How Power Corrupts: Cognition and Democracy in Organisations (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010).CrossRefGoogle Scholar

149 Philp, Mark, Political Conduct (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2007), 102, 107.Google Scholar

150 Mill, “Considerations on Representative Government,” 6, 273.

151 Gambetta, Diego, “‘Claro!’: an Essay on Discursive Machismo,” in Elster, Jon, ed., Deliberative Democracy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998), 33.Google Scholar

152 Mill, “The Subjection of Women,” 4.4, 196.

153 Innes, Judith and Booher, David, “Consensus Building as Role Playing and Bricolage: Toward a Theory of Collaborative Planning,” Journal of the American Planning Association 65 (1999): 12–13, 16–21.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

154 Hume, David, “Of the Independency of Parliament,” in Hume, David, Political Essays, ed. Haakonssen, Knud (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), 26.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

155 E.g., Leff, Nathaniel, “Economic Development Through Bureaucratic Corruption,” American Behavioral Scientist 8 (1964): 8–14.CrossRefGoogle Scholar For a critique of such arguments, see Rose-Ackerman, Susan, Corruption and Government: Causes, Consequences, and Reform (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), 16–17.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

156 Anechiaricho, Frank and Jacobs, James, The Pursuit of Absolute Integrity: How Corruption Control Makes Government Ineffective (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996).Google Scholar But see the important critique of Anechiaricho and Jacobs’s evidence by Rodney Smith, book review, Governance 13 (2000): 113.

157 Gordon Tullock, book review, Journal of Economic Literature 27 (1989): 659.

158 Niskanen, William, Bureaucracy and Public Economics (Aldershot: Edward Elgar, 1994), 192–94.Google Scholar

159 Rose-Ackerman, Susan, Corruption: A Study in Political Economy (London: Academic Press, 1978), 9;Google Scholar Schmidtz, David, “Corruption: What Really Should Not Be For Sale,” in Rangan, Subramanian, ed., Performance and Progress: Essays on Capitalism, Business, and Society (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015), 54.Google Scholar