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From Savages to Citizens: The Cultural Revolution in the Soviet Far North, 1928-1938

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  27 January 2017

Yuri Slezkine
Yuri Slezkine*
Affiliation:
The Department of History, Wake Forest University
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Extract

In the mid-1920s the Soviet government singled out about 150,000 ; citizens for an administrative category designated the "small peoples of the north." These were the indigenous inhabitants of the Arctic and sub-Arctic zones of the Soviet Union who subsisted on hunting, fishing and reindeer herding and who were seen by bolshevik officials as the most backward peoples of the new republic, languishing in a pitiful and unacceptable state of "semi-savagery and outright savagery." As such, they needed to be understood as a peculiar phenomenon and governed differently from their more "cultured" countrymen.

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Articles
Information
Slavic Review , Volume 51 , Issue 1 , Spring 1992 , pp. 52 - 76
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Copyright © Association for Slavic, East European, and Eurasian Studies. 1992

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References

Research for this article was assisted by a grant from the Joint Committee on Soviet ; Studies of the Social Science Research Council and the American Council of Learned Societies. I would like to thank the participants of the 1990 Human Sciences Workshop at the University of Chicago Fishbein Center for thoughtful criticism; E. Pivovar, for helping me gain access to the archives; and A. Pika, for sharing some of his materials.

1. In recent years Soviet ethnographers have dropped the modifier, but to most j Russians who have heard of their existence they are still “the small peoples” (malye j narody). I

2. V. I. Lenin, Polnoe sobranie sochinenii, 5th ed., vol. 43, 228. The peoples included j were the Saami (Lapps), Khanty (Ostiak), Mansi (Vogul), Nenets (Samoed, lurak), Enets j (Enisei Samoed), Sel kup (Ostiako-Samoed), Nganasan (Tavgi Samoed), Dolgan, Ket (Enisei Ostiak), Evenk (Tungus), Even (Lamut), Iukagir, Chukchi, Koriak, Itel'men (Kamchadal), Eskimo, Aleut, Nivkh (Giliak), Negidal, Nanai (Gol'd), Ul'ch (Mangun), Oroch, Orok, Udege (Tazy) and Tofalar (Karagas). The most common old names are given in parentheses. All names are transliterations of the contemporary Russian singular forms, with the exception of Chukchi and “Asiatic Eskimo,” for whom the traditional English names are used.

3. For historical accounts of Soviet policies towards the “small peoples of the north,” see Connolly, Violet, Siberia Today and Tomorrow (London: Collins, 1975 Google Scholar; Kolarz, Walter, The Peoples of the Soviet Far East (New York: Praeger, 1954 Google Scholar; Kuoljok, Kerstin Eidlitz, The Revolution in the North: Soviet Ethnography and Nationality Policy (Uppsala: Almquist & Wiksell, 1985)Google Scholar; Sergeev, M. A., Nekapitalisticheskiiput1 razvitiia malykh narodov Severa (Moscow: AN SSSR, 1955 Google Scholar; Taracouzio, Timothy A., Soviets in the Arctic (New York: Macmillan, 1938 Google Scholar. For recent ethnographies, see Boris Chichlo, “La Tchoukotka: une outre civilisation obligatoire. Quelques observations sur le terrain,” La Revue du Musée de I'Homme, Tome 25, 149-58; Humphrey, Caroline, Karl Marx Collective: Economy, Society and Religion in a Siberian Collective Farm (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, J 1983)Google Scholar; Balzer, Marjorie Mandelstam, “Ethnicity without Power: The Siberian Khanty 1 in Soviet Society,” Slavic Review, no. 4 (1983): 633–48CrossRefGoogle Scholar. For current Soviet literature on i indigenous policies in the north, see Slezkine, Yuri, “Between Real Socialism and j Reservations: Perestroika in the Soviet North/'yowrwo/ of Soviet Nationalities, no. 2 (1991)Google Scholar, J forthcoming.

4. Polnoe sobranie russkikh letopisei, vol. 1, 235.

5. Pypin, A. N., Istoriia russkoi etnografii, IV vols. (St. Petersburg: Tipografiia Stasiulevicha, 1892), IV: 187 Google Scholar. See also Oksenov, A, “Slukhi i vesti o Sibiri do Ermaka,” Sibirskii Sbornik, No. 4 (1887): 108–16.Google Scholar

6. For published sources, see in particular, Akty istoricheskie (AI), Dopolneniia k aktam istoricheskim (DAI), Pamiatniki sibirskoi istorii (PSI) and Russkaia istoricheskaia biblioteka (RIB).The best historical accounts are Bakhrushin, S. V., Nauchnye trudy, vol. 3 (Moscow: AN SSSR, 1955 Google Scholar; Fisher, Raymond H., The Russian Fur Trade 1550-1700, University of California Publications in History, vol. 31 (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1943)Google Scholar; Lantzeff, George V., Siberia in the Seventeenth Century: A Study of the Colonial Administration, University of California Publications in History, vol. 30 (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1943)Google Scholar and Martin, Janet, Treasure of the Land of Darkness: The Fur Trade and Its Significance for Medieval Russia (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

7. There were a few exceptions. See Shunkov, V. I., Ocherki po istorii kolonizatsii Sibiri v XVII-nachale XVIII w, (Moscow-Leningrad: AN SSSR, 1946) 92.Google Scholar

8. DAI, vol. 2, 273; vol. 4, 360; P. N. Butsinskii, Zaselenie Sibiri i byt pervykh ee nasel'nikov (Khar'kov, 1889), 309-10.

9. N. S. Orlova, ed., Otkrytiia russkikh zemleprokhodtsev i poliarnykh morekhodov XVII veka na severo-vostoke Azii. Sbornik dokumentov (Moscow: Geografgiz, 1951), 254-55.

10. I.I. Ogryzko, Khristianizatsiia narodov Tobol'skogo Severa v XVIII veke (Leningrad: Uchpedgiz, 1941), 22-23.

11. “And the foreigners said that since they had abandoned their faith they would not be allowed back on their land.” RIB, vol. 2, 184; Ogryzko, Khristianizatsiia, 16-17.

12. Polnoe sobranie zakonov Rossiiskoi imperii (PSZ), vol. 2, 663.

13. V. N. Tatishchev, “Razgovor dvukh priiatelei o pol'ze nauki i uchilishchakh,” inIzbrannye proizvedeniia (Leningrad: Nauka, 1979), 70.

14. Ibid., 112.

15. Ibid., 104.

16. PSI, vol. 1, 413-14.

17. By the early twentieth century, any non-Russian could be colloquially referred to as an alien, but the use of the term in the sense of “particularly backward non-Russian” remained prevalent in informal speech and obligatory in legal documents. See L. Shternberg, “Inorodtsy,” in A. P. Kastelianskii, ed., Formy natsional'rwgo dvizheniia v savremermykh gosudarstvakh (St. Petersburg: Obslichestvennaia pol'za, 1910), 531-32.

18. Pypin, Istoriia russkoi etnografii, vol. 1, 83.

19. Okladnikov, , ed., Ocherki russkoi literatury Sibiri (Novosibirsk: Nauka, 1982), vol. 1, 215–29Google Scholar; see in particular, Bestuzhev-Marlinskii's “Saatyr'” in Orlov, VI., ed., Dekabristy (Moscow-Leningrad: GIKhL, 1951), 160–62Google Scholar, and Chizhov's “Nucha,” in Ibid., 192-93.

20. Okladnikov, ed., Ocherki russkoi literatury Sibiri, vol. 1, 236, 244, 258-62; Postnov, Iu. S., “Literatura Sibiri v russkoi kritike pervoi poloviny XIX veka,” in Ocherki literatury i kritiki Sibiri (Novosibirsk: Nauka, 1976), 100–102 Google Scholar; Postnov, Iu. S., “Poeziia romantizma v literature Sibiri,” in Voprosy russkoi i sovetskoi literatury Sibiri (Novosibirsk: Nauka, 1971), 122–23Google Scholar.

21. For the only piece of imperial legislation dealing specifically with the legal status of the indigenous northerners, see PSZ 38, No. 29: 126. For the Siberian regionalist platform on the “native problem,” see Iadrintsev's, N. M. Sibir’ kak koloniia (St. Petersburg: Tipografiia Stasiulevicha, 1882)Google Scholar and Potanin, G. N., Oblastnicheskaia tendentsiia v Sibiri (Tomsk: Sibirskoe tovarishchestvo pechatnogo dela, 1907), 49 Google Scholar. For literary representation of “the pure and the deceived,” see Naumov, N. I., Sobranie sochinenii(Novosibirsk: Novosibirskoe oblastnoe gosudarstvennoe izdatel'stvo, 1940), vol. 2, 18–63 Google Scholar and Rasskazy o staroi Sibiri (Tomsk: Tomskoe knizhnoe izdatel'stvo, 1960), 169-85; Fedorov, I. V. (Omulevskii), Polnoe sobranie sochinenii Omulevskago (I. V. Fedorova) (St. Petersburg, Izdanie A.F. Marks, 1906), vol. 2, 302–3Google Scholar.

22. See in particular works by L. la. Shternberg, V. G. Bogoraz (also Bogoras and Bogoraz-Tan) and V. Iokhel'son (also W. Jochelson).

23. “Komitet sodeistviia narodnostiam severnykh okrain pri Prezidiume VTsIK,” Sovetskaia Aziia, no. 1-2 (1925): 136. The term narodnost’ refers to small, usually preindustrial, ethnic groups. With the elaboration of the Soviet theory of ethnic evolution, narodnost’ came to denote a community situated higher than the tribe (primitive communism) but below the nation (formed under capitalism). In the 1920s and 1930s the term was used loosely in its colloquial meaning.

24. Malye narody/narodnosti Severn.

25. TsGAOR, f. 3977, op. 1, d. 2, 11. 3-5; P. I. Sosunov, “Tobol'skii Sever,” Sovetshaia Aziia, no. 4 (1925): 79. See also D. Dmitriev, “Severnoe olenevodstvo i ego ekonomika,” Sovetskaia Aziia, no. 5-6 (1925): 105-6; G. M. Vasilevich, “Na Nizhnei Tunguske,” Sovetskaia Aziia, no. 5-6 (1926): 152.

26. S. A. Ratner-Shternberg, “L. la. Shternberg i leningradskaia etnograficheskaia shkola 1904-1927 gg.,” Sovetskaia etnografiia, no. 2 (1935): 144-47.

27. S. Dimanshtein, “Rekonstruktivnyi period i rabota sredi natsional'nostei SSSR,” Revoliutsiia i natsional'nosti, no. 1 (1930): 14.

28. Skachko, “Ocherednye zadachi sovetskoi raboty sredi malykh narodov Severa,” Sovetskii sever, no. 2 (1931): 20.

29. Amosov, M, “Problema natskadrov v period sotsialisticheskoi rekonstruktsii,” Revoliutsiia i natsional'nosti, no. 1 (1930): 20–28 Google Scholar; Bogdanov, A, “Kolkhoznoe stroitel'stvo v natsional'nykh raionakh,” Revoliutsiia i natsional'nosti, no. 3 (1930): 41 Google Scholar; Mostovaia, E, “Sovety v natsional'nykh respublikakh i oblastiakh,” Revoliutsiia i natsional'nosti, no. 4-5 (1930): 47–57 Google Scholar; Oshirov, A, “Korenizatsiia v sovetskom stroitel'stve,” Revoliutsiia i natsional'nosti, no. 4-5 (1930): 110–15.Google Scholar

30. A. Takho-Godi, “Podgotovka vuzovskikh kadrov natsmen,” Revoliutsiia i natsional'nosti, no. 6 (1930): 83.

31. “Protokol VII rasshirennogo plenuma Komiteta,” Sovetskii Sever, no. 4 (1930): 147.

32. “Vos'moi rasshirennyi plenum Komiteta Severa,” Sovetskii Sever, no. 6 (1931): 154-58.

33. TsGAOR, f. 3977, op. 1, d. 933, 11. 9-10; D. F. Medvedev, “Za podgotovku kadrov i vydvizhenie tuzemnykh sovetskikh rabotnikov,” Sovetskii Sever, no. 10 (1931): 12-13.

34. A. Gilev, “Zapiski o Bauntovskom raione,” Sovetskii Sever, no. 4 (1934): 92-93.

35. Davydov, “Ocherednye zadachi kul'turnogo stroitel'stva na Krainem Severe,” Sovetskii Sever, no. 4 (1932): 96-99.

36. Ibid., 96.

37. Skachko, “Osnovnye voprosy sotsialisticheskogo stroitel'stva na Krainem Severe,” Sovetskii Sever, no. 3 (1934): 12.

38. E. D. Kantor, “Kadry na Krainem Severe,” Sovetskaia Arktika, no. 2 (1935): 29.

39. Skorik, P., “Kul'turnyi shturm taigi i tundry,” Prosveshchenie natsional'nostei, no. 10 (1932): 32–39Google Scholar; Skorik, P, “Kul'turnyi shturm taigi i tundry,” Sovetskii Sever, no. 1-2 (1932): 158–67Google Scholar.

40. Il'ia Markov, “Kul'tpokhod v deistvii,” Sovetskii Sever, no. 4 (1933): 89.

41. Ibid, 91.

42. “Vseobuch na Krainem Severe,” Sovetskii Sever, no. 5 (1933): 95.

43. Medvedev, “Ukrepim sovety na Krainem Severe i ozhivim ikh rabotu,” Sovetskii Sever, no. 1 (1933): 6-8; “V natsional'nykh okrugakh i raionakh,” Sovetskii Sever, no. 1 (1933): 127; “O sostoianii korenizatsii apparata po Iamal'skomu (Nenetskomu) okrugu,” Sovetskii Sever, no. 2 (1933): 112-14.

44. Medvedev, “Ukrepim sovety,” 6.

45. Sobranie uzakonenii i rasporiazheniiRSFSR, no. 47, St. 356, in Russian Historical Sources 1928, part 1, 608-11.

46. S. Akopov, “Bor'ba s bytovymi prestupleniiami,” Revoliutsiia i natsional'nosti, no. 4-5 (1930): 58-63.

47. N. Leonov, “V nizov'iakh Amura,” Sovetskii Sever, no. 2 (1930): 96-97.

48. Suslov, I. M., “Shamanstvo i bor'ba s nim,” Sovetskii Sever, no. 3-4 (1931): 90.Google Scholar See also TsGAOR, f. 3977, op. 1, d. 392, 1. 105; d. 394, 1. 25; d. 650, 1. 59; BogorazTan, V. G., “Religiia, kak tormoz sotsstroitel'stva sredi malykh narodnostei Severa,” Sovetskii Sever, no. 1-2 (1932): 144.Google Scholar

49. Leonov, N, “Kul'tbaza v taige,” Prosveshchenie natsional'nostei, no. 9-10 (1930): 88 Google Scholar; Suslov, , “Shamanstvo i bor'ba s nim,” 92-98; I. Skachkov, “Ob antireligioznoi rabote na Severe,” Revoliutsiia i natsional'nosti, no. 7 (1934): 53 Google Scholar; Semushkin, T., Chukotka (Moscow: Sovetskii pisatel', 1941), 143–44Google Scholar; “Kul'tura, byt i shkola na Severe,” Taiga i tundra, no. 4 (1932): 28-42.

50. Skachkov, “Ob antireligioznoi rabote na Severe,” 53. See also E. Kantor, “Liudi i fakty. Staroe i novoe,” Sovetskii Sever, no. 3-4 (1935): 189.

51. Leonov, “Kul'tbaza v taige,” 88; Kruglov, “O revoliutsionnoi zakonnosti,” 100; K. Sergeeva, “V Urelikskom natssovete,” Sovetskii Sever, no. 1 (1935): 96-97.

52. G. Ul'ianov, “Nabolevshie voprosy,” Prosveshchenie natsional'nostei, no. 1 (1929): 49; A. I. Mineev, Ostrov Vrangelia (Moscow-Leningrad: Glavsevmorput', 1946), 71-72.

53. Semushkin, Chukotka, 167-72.

54. Mineev, Ostrov Vrangelia, 65-67. When Chukchi children parodied their Russian teachers, they made speeches against shamans. See Semushkin, Chukotka, 117-18, also 84, 112; Mukhachev, I, “Ballada o tungusakh i o shamane,” Okhotnik i rybak Sibiri, no. 4 (1934): 63–64 Google Scholar; Suslov, “Shamanstvo i bor'ba s nim,” 139-40; Prokof'ev, G. N., “Tri goda v samoedskoi shkole,” Sovetskii Sever, no. 7-8 (1931): 157–58.Google Scholar

55. A. K. L'vov, “Ekspeditsiia Pushnogostorga i Sibtorga v Eloguiskii raion Turukhanskogo kraia,” Sovetskii Sever, no. 2 (1930): 109. See also TsGAOR, f. 3977, op. 1, d. 299, 1. 23; d. 711, 1. 4.

56. Bogoraz-Tan, “Religiia, kak tormoz,” 146.

57. Skachkov, “Ob antireligioznoi rabote na Severe,” 52.

58. TsGAOR, f. 3977, op. 1, d. 682, 1. 14; d. 841, 1. 1; N. B-ov, “Budni krasnykh iurt,” Prosveshchenie natsional'nostei, no. 1 (1931): 62 Google Scholar; Skachko, An, “VIII Plenum Komiteta Severa,” Sovetskii Sever, no. 5 (1931): 7 Google Scholar; Kruglov, A, “Perevybory sovetov na Severnom Urale,” Sovetskii Sever, no. 5 (1931): 99.Google Scholar

59. Vasilevich, G, “Symskie tungusy,” Sovetskii Sever, no. 2 (1931): 146 Google Scholar; Kruglov, A, “O revoliutsionnoi zakonnosti na mestakh,” Sovetskii Sever, no. 1 (1933): 100.Google Scholar

60. Kruglov, “O revoliutsionnoi zakonnosti,” 100; see also TsGAOR, f. 3977, op. 1, d. 391, 1.58-59; d. 650, 1.65; d. 651, 11.2-3.

61. Prokof'ev, “Tri goda,” 148; TsGAOR, f. 3977, op. 1, d. 392, 1. 116.

62. Skachkov, “Ob antireligioznoi rabote,” 54.

63. I. Pervukhin, “Sredi malykh narodnostei Sibirskogo kraia,” Sovetskii Sever, no. 5 (1930): 49.

64. V. P. Zisser, “Sredi Verkhne-Kolymskikh tungusov,” Sovetskii Sever, no. 1 (1934): 113.

65. Bogoraz-Tan, “Religiia, kak tormoz,” 148.

66. TsGAOR, f. 3977, op. 1, d. 477, 11. 14-16; d. 495, 1. 24; I. Pervukhin, “Peredvizhnoi krasnyi chum na Turukhanskom Severe,” Sovetskii Sever, no. 5 (1930): 132; E. Kantor, “Kazymskaia kul'tbaza,” Sovetskii Sever, no. 6 (1933): 66-68. P. Terletskii, “Kul'tbazy Komiteta Severa,” Sovetskii Sever, no. 1 (1935): 36-47.

67. A. Shepovalova, “Sotsial'no-bytovaia sreda tungusskikh detei na Sev. Baikale,” Pedologiia, no. 2 (1930): 185.

68. Zibarev, V. A., Sovetskoe stroitel'stvo u malykh narodnostei Severa, 1917-1932 (Tomsk: TGU, 1969), 112.Google Scholar

69. Davydov, “Ocherednye zadachi kul'turnogo stroitel'stva na Krainem Severe,” Sovetskii Sever, no. 4 (1932): 94.

70. TsGAOR, f. 3977, op. 1, d. 529, 1. 12; d. 740, 11.4-5; d. 936, 1. 66; Leonov, N, “Kul'tbaza v taige,” Prosveshchenie natsional'nostei, no. 9-10 (1930): 86–90 Google Scholar; Putintseva, A, “Dva goda raboty Goriuno-Amurskoi krasnoi iurty,” Sovetskii Sever, no. 1-2 (1932): 168, 174, 177Google Scholar; Nesterenok, I, “Smotr natsional'nykh shkol na Taimyre,” Sovetskii Sever, no.6 (1932): 84–85 Google Scholar; Terent'ev, A., “Na putiakh k vseobuchu v tundre,” Prosveshchenie natsional'nostei, no. 1 (1933): 25 Google Scholar; Osipova, L, “Ogon'ki sovetskoi kul'tury na Severe,” Sovetskii Sever, no. 2 (1933): 77–78 Google Scholar; Shmyrev, B, “Iamal'skaia kul'tbaza,” Sovetskii Sever, no. 6 (1933): 69–70.Google Scholar

71. The same was true of other areas poor in proletariat, including most of the Russian countryside and Soviet Central Asia. Cf. Gregory J. Massell, The Surrogate Proletariat: Moslem Women and Revolutionary Strategies in Soviet Central Asia, 1919-1929 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1974).

72. Kuz'mina, E., “Koriakskaia zhenshchina,” Prosveshchenie natsional'nostei, no. 7 (1932): 98 Google Scholar; L'vov, V., “Zhenshchina Severa,” Prosveshchenie natsional'nostei, no. 1 (1932): 42.Google Scholar

73. Sergeeva, “V Urelikskom natssovete. “

74. S. Golubev, “Danka iz stoibishcha Andy,” Sovetskii Sever, no. 4 (1932): 130.

75. TsGAOR, f. 3977, op. 1, d. 397, 11. llf; “Pervoe soveshchanie zhenshchintuzemok Severa,” Sovetskii Sever, no. 1 (1930): 150-52; Taiga i tundra, no. 2-3 (1930).

76. TsGAOR, f. 3977, op. 1, d. 584, 1. 38; “Pervoe soveshchanie zhenshchin-tuzemok Severa,” 150-51; B-ov, “Budni krasnykh iurt,” Prosveshchenie natsional'nostei, no. 1 (1931): 62; Putintseva, “Dva goda raboty,” 169, 171; V. A., “U chukoch v Chaunskoi gube,” Sovetskii Sever, no. 2 (1935): 60-64.

77. Sergeeva, “V Urelikskom natssovete,” 99.

78. Ibid., 98.

79. Kruglov, “Perevybory sovetov,” 98. See also TsGAOR, /. 3977, op. 1, d. 301, 1. 67; d. 528, 1.35; d. 646, 1.21; d. 682, 1.12; d. 934, 1. 22; A. M. Khazanovich, Krasnyi chum v Khatangskoi tundre (Leningrad: Glavsevmorput', 1939), 24-26.

80. TsGAOR, f. 3977, op. 1, d. 528, 1. 35. See also P. Ustiugov, “Samokritika na suglanakh,” Sovetskii Sever, no. 7-8 (1930): 54-55.

81. N. N. Bilibin, “Zhenshchina u koriakov,” Sovetskii Sever, no. 4 (1933): 92-96.

82. I. Barakhov, “V Evenkiiskom natsional'nom okruge,” Sovetskii Sever, no. 3 (1933): 44. See also TsGAOR, f. 3977, op. 1, d. 500, 1. 18-19.

83. Petri, V, “Dun'ka-okhotnitsa,” Okhotnik i rybak Sibiri, no. 10 (1929): 48–51 Google Scholar; Mokshanskii, G, “Tygrena iz stoibishcha Akkani,” Sovetskii Sever, no. 3 (1933): 113–15Google Scholar; Nikolaevich, Nikolai, “Sukonnaia rukavichka,” Okhotnik i rybak Sibiri, no. 8 (1929): 46–55.Google Scholar

84. Leonov, “Tuzemnye sovety,” 256.

85. Ibid., 257.

86. TsGAOR, f. 3977, op. 1, d. 299, 1. 19; d. 530, 1.12; d. 584, 1. 4.

87. Leonov, N, “V nizov'iakh Amura,” Sovetskii Sever, no. 2 (1930): 94–98 Google Scholar; Leonov, N, “Kul'tbaza v taige,” Prosveshchenie natsional'nostei, no. 9-10 (1930): 89 Google Scholar; B-ov, “Budni krasnykh iurt,” 63; Putintseva, “Dva goda raboty,” 173; Golubev, “Danka,” 132; Bilibin, “Zhenshchina u koriakov,” 92-96; Osipova, L, “Ogon'ki sovetskoi kul'tury na Severe,” Sovetskii Sever, no. 2 (1933): 78.Google Scholar

88. TsGAOR, f. 3977, op. 1, d. 397, I. 50.

89. “Tsirkuliar oblispolkomam Leningradskoi i Obsko-Irtyshskoi oblastei, kraiis polkomam Severnogo, Zapadno-sibirskogo, Vostochno-sibirskogo i Dal'nevostochnogo kraev i TsK Iakutskoi i Buriat-Mongol'skoi ASSR,” Sovetskii Sever, no. 5 (1934): 1 12.

90. Kantorovich, Po Sovetskoi’ Kamchatke, 154.

91. K. I. Usova, “Rebenok-tungus v shkole,” Pedologiia, no. 2 (1930): 192.

92. V. Senkevich, “V Voitekhovskikh iurtakh,” Sovetskii Sever, no. 6 (1934): 101. See also TsGAOR, f. 3977, op. 1, d. 757, 11. 13-23.

93. Ustiugov, “Samokritika na suglanakh,” 54.

94. TsGAOR, f. 3977, op. 1, d. 528, 1. 31. See also Ustiugov, “Samokritika naft suglanakh,” 54.

95. Ustiugov, “Samokritika na suglanakh,” 54.

96. Kantorovich, Po Sovetskoi Kamchatke, 154. See also TsGAOR, f. 3977, op. 1, d. 300, 1. 39; d. 528, 1. 32; d. 642, 1.147; d. 646, 1.21; d. 934, 1. 22; “Sovetskaia shkola u tuzemtsev Tobol'skogo Severa,” Sovetskii Sever, no. 1 (1931): 46; Kruglov, “Perevybory sovetov,” 98-99; T. Semushkin, “Prosveshchenie narodnostei Krainego Severa,” Prosveshchenie natsional'nostei, no. 1 (1932): 31; N. Shakhov, “Rastet natsional'naia kul'tura v tundre i na ostrovakh,” Prosveshchenie natsional'nostei, no. 2-3 (1932): 47; Davydov, “Ocherednye zadachi,” 94; I. Telishev, “God raboty v Ostiatskoi shkole,” Sovetskii Sever, no. 5 (1932): 125-26; Medvedev, “O rabote s bednotoi,” 75; Terent'ev, “Na putiakh k vseobuchu,” 25; Shmyrev, “Iamal'skaia kul'tbaza,” 70; Al'kor, “Zadachi kul'turnogo stroitel'stva,” 30; P. Kovalevskii, “V shkole-iurte,” Sovetskii Sever, no. 2 (1934): 103; A. Bazanov, “Vogul'skie deti,” Sovetskii Sever, no. 3 (1934): 93; Leonov, “Tuzemnye shkoly na Severe,” 200-1.

97. B. Shmyrev, “Iamal'skaia kul'tbaza,” Sovetskii Sever, no. 6 (1933): 70.

98. TsGAOR, f. 3977, op. 1, d. 301, 1. 11; “Sovetskaia shkola u tuzemtsev Tobol'skogo Severa,” 46.

99. Kovalevskii, “V shkole-iurte,” 104; Semushkin, Chukotka, 72.

100. TsGAOR, f. 3977, op. 1, d. 936, 1. 27; Putintseva, “Dva goda raboty,” 169, 174; Kovalevskii, “V shkole-iurte,” 104; Semushkin, Chukotka, 71-72.

101. Shmyrev, “Iamal'skaia kul'tbaza,” 73.

102. Davydov, “Ocherednye zadachi,” 99; Telishev, “God raboty,” 127; Gilev, “Zapiski,” 92; Bazanov, Shkola na Krainem Severe, 119-21.

103. P. Sletov, “Ot iukoly k kartofeliu,” Prosveshchenie natsional'nostei, no. 7-8 (1931): 64; Khazanovich, Krasnyi chum, 25.

104. TsGAOR, f. 3977, op. 1, d. 497, 11. 4-5; d. 990, 11.58-59.

105. Leonov, “Tuzemnye shkoly na Severe,” 204. See also Davydov, “Ocherednye zadachi,” 96; Sergeeva, “V Urelikskom natssovete,” 97-98; K. Sergeeva, “Shkola v bukhte Provideniia,” Sovetskii Sever, no. 2 (1935): 54.

106. Komov, “Rabota v chukotskoi shkole,” 73.

107. Semushkin, Chukotka, 48.

108. Semushkin, “Opyt raboty,” 177-82; Shmyrev, “Iamal'skaia kul'tbaza,” 73; Kovalevskii, “V shkole-iurte,” 105; Sergeeva, “Shkola v bukhte Provideniia,” 57; Bazanov, Shkola na Krainem Severe, 131-33; Semushkin, Chukotka, 37, 43, 49, 90-99.

109. Prokof ev, “Tri goda,” 148-50.

110. Sergeeva, “Shkola v bukhte Provideniia,” 57; see also P. Skorik, “Molodye pobegi Sakhalinskoi taigi,” Sovetskii Sever, no. 4 (1932): 108.

111. Most teachers’ accounts are by political activists. The “silent majority” of northern educators had nothing to do with the cultural revolution and, like the teacher Ugriumov, “did nothing but drink, so that, after one drinking orgy accompanied by a fight, one Nenets got his skull cracked open” (Terent'ev, “Na putiakh k vseobuchu,” 26).

112. V., “Neobkhodimo raskachat'sia,” Okhotnik i rybak Sibiri, no. 6 (1929): 11.

113. Komov, “Rabota v Chukotskoi shkole,” 77-78.

114. V. G. Bogoraz-Tan, “Chukotskii bukvar',” Sovetskii Sever, no. 10 (1931): 125-28.

115. Prokof'ev, “Tri goda,” 148-49; Bazanov, Shkola na Krainem Severe, 98-100, 131-133; Semushkin, Chukotha, 49, 62-64, 90, 102; Kantor, “Liudi i fakty,” 189-90.

116. Prokof'ev, “Tri goda,” 145; Alachev, “Novyi byt u ostiakov,” 136; Leonov, “Tuzemnye shkoly,” 203.

117. TsGAOR, f. 3977, op. 1, d. 945, 11. 7-19; “Sovetskaia shkola u tuzemtsev Tobol'skogo Severa,” 46; Davydov, “Ocherednye zadachi,” 98; Telishev, “God raboty,” 127; Al'kor, “Zadachi kul'turnogo stroitel'stva,” 27; Terletskii, “Kul'tbazy Komiteta Severa,” 41-42.

118. P. Nikolaev, “Natsional'nye shkoly na Sakhaline,” Prosveshchenie natsional'nostei, no. 4 (1934): 45; Senkevich, “V Voitekhovskikh iurtakh,” 103-5; Skorik, “Molodye pobegi Sakhalinskoi taigi,” 108.

119. Comp. K. Koril'skii, “O zaezzhikh domakh dlia tuzemtsev,” Sovetskii Sever, no. 9-12 (1930): 160; Solomonov, “Kul'tstroitel'stvo na Severe,” 138.

120. V., “Neobkhodimo raskachat'sia,” 11; Bulanov, I, “Materialy po izucheniiu povedeniia rebenka-tungusa,” Pedologiia, no. 2 (1930): 200 Google Scholar; Kantor, “liudi i fakty,” 190-92; Semushkin, Chuhotka, 28.

121. Ustiugov, “Tuzemnye sovety,” 25-28; Semushkin, Chukotka, 127-29.

122. B-ov, “Budni krasnykh iurt,” 64; Semushkin, “Opyt raboty,” 185-86; BogorazTan, “Religiia, kak tormoz,” 149; Semushkin, Chukotka, 71-72, 166-67.

123. Semushkin, Chukotka, 161.

124. Semushkin, “Opyt raboty,” 182; Semushkin, Chukotka, 77, 94, 227.

125. Slezkine, Yuri, “The Fall of Soviet Ethnography, 1928-1938,” Current Anthropology, vol. 32, no. 4 (August-October 1991): 476–85.CrossRefGoogle Scholar