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Ethnicity Without Power: The Siberian Khanty in Soviet Society

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  27 January 2017

Marjorie Mandelstam Balzer
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Western discussion of Soviet nationality issues frequently centers on large national groups and their varying potential for dissent. The fate of smaller groups, particularly those within the Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic, is less often explored and is sometimes obscured by assumptions of forced acculturation. Rather than viewing the dominant Soviet Russian culture as a shark eating small fish cultures like the Siberian Khanty, it is more appropriate to decipher a range of acculturation options and experiences. Sharks can get indigestion, and all the economic and political changes introduced in small Siberian societies do not eliminate questions of ethnicity. Sometimes they exacerbate them.

This article focuses on the cultural survival and ethnic consciousness of the Khanty, a Ugrian speaking group who live predominantly in the Northern Ob River area of sub-arctic Siberia and who numbered 20,934 in 1979. They are traditionally hunters, fishers, and semi-nomadic reindeer breeders whose locale and trade over centuries have led them into contact with several ethnic groups, including the Russians. Within the Soviet political framework, the Ob-Ugrian Khanty and Mansi share an Autonomous District (Okrug). This places them midway between Siberian groups without a formal administrative unit based on nationality (for example, some Amur River peoples) and the two largest Siberian groups, the Buriat and the Yakut, each numbering over 325,000, with their own Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republics (ASSRs) within the RSFSR.

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Slavic Review , Volume 42 , Issue 4 , Winter 1983 , pp. 633 - 648
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Copyright © Association for Slavic, East European, and Eurasian Studies. 1983

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References

1. I was privileged to accompany a Soviet ethnographic expedition to the Northern Ob River region, sponsored by Leningrad University in July and early August 1976. This was possible through participation in the IREX cultural exchange in 1975-76 for thirteen months of field and archival research. Siberian field data is based on interviews with Khanty and Russians in two villages, Tegy and Kazym. While Russian was the main means of communication, I learned key concepts in the Khanty language and was able to find my own consultants of both genders and varying ages. Archival data come from access to Tegy and Kazym records and from the Central State Historical Archive (TsGIA) in Leningrad. Recent population figures are from the 1979 Soviet census, Vestnik Statistiki (1980). 'Terminology has recently been changed, so that formerly “National Districts” are now “Autonomous Districts.“

2. Soviet anthropologists usually define “ethnos” in more complex terms, beginning with self-identification, but assuming an evolving and hierarchic set of historic and ethnolinguistic communities. See, for example, S. A., Arutiunov, “Protsessy i zakonomernosti vkhozhdeniia innovatsii v kul'turu etnosa” Sovetskaia etnografiia (hereafter cited as SE), no. 1 (1982): 8–21Google Scholar; Arutiunov, S. A. and Bromlei, Iu. V., “Problems of Ethnicity in Soviet Ethnographic Studies,” in Perspectives in Ethnicity, ed. Regina E. Holloman and S. A. Arutiunov (The Hague: Mouton, 1978), pp. 11–13 Google Scholar; Bromlei, Iu. V., Etnos i etnografiia (Moscow: Akademiia Nauk, 1973)Google Scholar; Bromlei, Iu. V., “On the Typology of Ethnic Communities” in Holloman and Arutiunov, eds., Perspectives in Ethnicity, pp. 15–21Google Scholar; Bromlei, Iu. V., Sovremennyeproblemy etnografii (Moscow: Akademiia Nauk, 1981)Google Scholar; Bromlei, Iu. V., ed., Sovremennye etnicheskieprotsessy v SSSR (Moscow: Akademiia Nauk, 1977)Google Scholar; Bromlei, Iu. V., Arutiunov, S. A. and Chesnov, Ia. V., eds., Problemy tipologii v etnografii (Moscow: Akademiia Nauk, 1979)Google Scholar; Kulichenko, M. I., Rastsvet i sblizhenie natsii v SSSR (Problemy teorii i metodologii) (Moscow. Mysl', 1981)Google Scholar; Kozlov, V. I., Natsional’nosti SSSR (Etnodemograficheskii obzor) (Moscow: Statistika, 1975)Google Scholar; Kozlov, V. I., “Ethnography and Demography,” in Gellner, Ernest, ed., Soviet and Western Anthropology (New York: Columbia University Press, 1980), pp. 265–74Google Scholar. Barth, Fredrik attempts both subjectivity and objectivity: “Introduction,” in Barth, Fredrik, ed., Ethnic Groups and Boundaries (Boston: Little, Brown, 1969), pp. 9–38.Google Scholar

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8. Müller, Opisanie Sibirskogo Tsarstva, pp. 158-63, 260-63; Müller, , Istoriia Sibiri (Moscow: Akademia Nauk, 1941), 2:204–12Google Scholar (documents from portfeli Millera, now in Tsentral'nyi Gosudarstvennyi Arkhiv Derevnikh Aktov [TsGADA]). The varied contact history of conflict and cooperation has allowed diversity in Soviet historiography, corresponding to official positions in different periods. See Lowell, Tillet, The Great Friendship (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1969)Google Scholar; d'Encausse, Hélène Carrère, “Determinants and Parameters of Soviet Nationality Policy,” in Azrael, Jeremy R., ed., Soviet Nationality Policies and Practices (New York: Praeger, 1978), pp. 39–59 Google Scholar. For a Soviet view of Siberian conquest that stresses alliance more than exploitive colonization, see Boiarshinova, A. Ia. and Shunkov, V. I., “Prisoedinenie Sibiri k Russkomu gosudarstvu,” in A. P. Okladnikov et al., eds., Istoriia Sibiri (Leningrad: Akademiia Nauk, 1968), pp. 25–41 Google Scholar.

9. The campaign was described in 1715 by an early participant, Novitskii, Grigorii, in Kratkoe opisanie o narode Ostiatskom (St. Petersburg: Maikov, 1884)Google Scholar. See also TsGIA, fond 796, church records, opis 11, delo 504; Butsinskii, P. N., Kreshenie Ostiakov i Vogulov pri Petre Velikom (Khar'kov: Tip. Gubernskogo Pravleniia, 1893)Google Scholar; Ogrisko, I. I., Khristianizatsiia Narodov ToboVskogo Severa (Leningrad: Uchebno-Pedagogicheskoe Izdatel'stvo, 1941).Google Scholar

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12. N. P-rovskii, “Beresov,” Tobol'skie Gubernskie Vedomosti, 33 (1866): 237-50.

13. TsGIA, fond 1264, Siberian Committee Records, opis 1, dela 2, 265, 266, 267, 287; Marc Raeff, Siberia and the Reforms of 1822 (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1956).

14. Arkadii Ivanovich Iakobii, Ugasanie inorodcheskikh piemen Severa (St. Petersburg: Doma prizreniia maloletnikh bednykh, 1893); Seraflm Keropovich Patkanov, O priroste inorodcheskogo naseleniia Sibiri. Statisticheskie materialy (St. Petersburg: Imperatorskaia Akademiia Nauk, 1911).

15. For stress on modernization, see Kiselev, L. E., Ot patriarkhal'shchiny k sotsializmu (Sverdlovsk: Sredne-Ural'skoe Izdatel'stvo, 1974)Google Scholar; Helmut, Liely, “Shepherds and Reindeer Nomads in the Soviet Union” Soviet Studies, 31, no. 3 (1979): 401–16Google Scholar; V., Loshak, ed., Obnovlennaia Iugra (Sverdlovsk: Sredne-Ural'skoe Izdatel'stvo, 1970)Google Scholar.

16. For a historical perspective on debates and policies, see Paul Goble, “Nomads, Commissars and Social Scientists: The Changing Soviet Image of Nomadism” (Paper delivered at the Thirteenth Convention of the AAASS, Washington, D.C., October 1981); Gorodkov, B, “Ekspeditsionnoe obsledovanie Sibirskogo Severa” Sovetskii Sever, no. 3 (1930): 120–23Google Scholar; Koshelev, la, “Olenevodcheskie sovetskie khoziaistva” Sovetskii Sever, no. 4 (1932): 28–37Google Scholar. There are recent indications of economic trouble in reindeer breeding: Current Digest of the Soviet Press, 34, no. 10 (1982): 21-22.

17. On the development of Siberian schools, see K. S. Andreeva, “Kul'turnoe stroitel'stvo u malykh narodnostei Obskogo Severa,” in Kul'turnoe stroitel'stvo v Sibiri v 1917-1960 gg., vyp. 1 of series Sibir’ v period stroitel'stvo sotsializma iperekhoda k kommunizmu, ed. F. A. Lukinskii et al. (Novosibirsk: AkademiiaNauk, 1962), pp. 154-69, especially pp. 157,165; Kiselev, Otpatriarkhal'- shchiny ksotsializmu, pp. 250-59; Leonov, N. I., “Tuzemnye shkoly na severe,” in P. G. Smidovich, S. A. Buterlin, N. I. Leonov, eds., Sovetskii Sever pervyi sbornik statei (Moscow: Proletarskoe Slovo, 1929), pp. 200–18Google Scholar. But Khanty families sometimes hesitate to send their children away for higher and technical education. This is similar to situations in Central Asia, where “technical schools are usually located in urban centers, and parents are reluctant to send their offspring to schools far from home, in an alien environment.” d'Encausse, Carrere, The Decline of an Empire (New York: Newsweek, 1979), p. 111.Google Scholar

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19. Population ratios are difficult to judge for small Siberian villages, since many natives use their houses as bases from which to hunt, fish, and herd. Contrasts should also be drawn between larger towns like Tiumen’ and Tobol'sk, where there are more Russians than natives, and villages like Kazym, where there are fewer Russians. Inaccurate native perceptions of ratios can also be significant. In 1976, one young Khanty man thought Russians outnumbered Khanty in Tegy, while according to records on the collective they comprised only approximately 15 percent of that village of 500.

20. Lola Romanucci-Ross and George De Vos, eds., Ethnic Identity, p. 367; Ward Goodenough, “Toward an Anthropologically Useful Definition of Religion,” in A. W. Eister, ed., Changing Perspectives in the Scientific Study of Religion (New York: John Wiley, 1974), pp. 165-84. My orientation toward a cognitive explanation of ethnicity does not preclude investigations from more materialist or sociopolitical perspectives.

21. For data on ancestral names, reincarnation, and burial, see M arjorie M., Balzer, “The Route to Eternity: Cultural Persistence and Change in Siberian Khanty Burial Rituals” Arctic Anthropology, 17, no. 1 (1980): 77–89Google Scholar; and the thorough work of Soviet ethnographer Z. P., Sokolova, “Perezhitki religioznykh verovanii u obskikh ugrov” Sbornik Muzeia Antropologii i Etnografii, 17 (1971): 211–39Google Scholar; “Nasledstvennye, ili predkovye, imena u obskikh ugrov i sviazannye s nimi obychai,” SE, no. 5 (1975): 42-52; “Novye dannye o pogrebal'nom obriade Severnykh Khantov,” Polevye issledovaniia Instituta Etnografii 1974 (1975), pp. 165-74; Strana ugrov (Moscow: Mysl', 1976), pp. 110-12; “Pokhorony u Kazymskikh Khantov,” Polevye issledovaniia Instituta Etnografii 1977 (1979), pp. 249-53.

22. I learned about female pollution directly when I was stopped from climbing up a ladder to an attic by an irate Khanty elder who feared that I would contaminate the whole floor below, and probably his ancestral idols. On gender relations, see Marjorie Mandelstam Balzer, “Rituals of Gender Identity: Markers of Siberian Khanty Ethnicity, Status and Belief,” American Anthropologist, 83, no. 4 (1981): 850-67; Sokolova, Strana ugrov, p. 84.

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24. Examples of this kind of analysis include Edmund, Carpenter, “Witch-Fear among the Aivilik Eskimos,” in Y. A. Cohen, ed., Social Structure and Personality (New York: Holt, Rhinehart, 1961), pp. 508–15Google Scholar; Mary, Douglas, “Purity and Danger Revisited” Times Literary Supplement (September 19, 1980), pp. 1045–46.Google Scholar

25. I. N. Shukov, “Reka Kazym i ee obitateli,” Ezhegodnik Tobol'skogo Gubernskogo Muzeia, 26 (1916): 31.

26. For a broader context, see Binns, Christopher A. P., “The Changing Face of Power: Revolution and Accommodation in the Development of the Soviet Ceremonial System II,” Man, 15, no. 1 (March 1980): 170–87CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Christel, Lane, The Rites of Rulers (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981)Google Scholar.

27. Brian, Silver, “Language Policy and the Linguistic Russification of Soviet Nationalities” in Azrael, ed., Soviet Nationality Policies and Practices, pp. 300–301Google Scholar. On bilingual policy, see Barbara A. Anderson and Brian Silver, “Bilingual Schooling Policies in the USSR: 1934-1980” (Paper delivered at the Fourteenth National Convention of the AAASS, Washington, D.C., October 1982); Roman, Solchanyk, “Russian Language and Soviet Politics” Soviet Studies, 34, no. 1 (1982): 23–42Google Scholar. For a linguist's overview, see Bernard Comrie, The Languages of the Soviet Union (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981). For Soviet assumptions about Russification, see Beloded, I. K., Desheriev, Iu. D., and Ivanov, V. V., eds., Russkii iazyk kak sredstvo mezhdunatsional'nogo obshcheniia (Moscow: Akademiia Nauk, 1977)Google Scholar; Borodina, M. A., Gurvich, I. S., and Menovshchikov, G. A., eds., Narody i iazyki Sibiri (Moscow: Akademiia Nauk, 1978)Google Scholar; S. I., Brik and M. N., Guboglo, “Faktory rasprostraneniia dvuiazychiia u narodov SSSR” SE, no. 5 (1975): 17–30.Google Scholar

28. For example, O. A. Gantskaia, “Etnos i semia v SSSR,” SE, no. 3 (1974): 20-30. For Western debate about the degree to which intermarriage statistics can reveal variable proclivities toward nationalism or acculturation, compare Barbara A., Anderson, “Some Factors Related to Ethnic Reidentification in the Russian Republic” in Azrael, ed., Soviet Nationality Policies and Practices, p. 317 Google Scholar; Carrere d'Encausse, Decline of an Empire, pp. 82, 248-57; Wesley A., Fisher, “Ethnic Consciousness and Intermarriage: Correlates of Endogamy Among the Major Soviet Nationalities” Soviet Studies, 29, no. 3 (1977): 394 Google Scholar; Richard, Pipes, “Introduction,” in Z. Katz, ed., Handbook of Major Soviet Nationalities (New York: Free Press, 1975), p. 3 Google Scholar. For Khanty data, see Sokolova, Z. P., “Sovremennye etnicheskie protsessy u obskikh ugrov,” in I. S. Gurvich and B. O. Dolgikh, eds., Preobrazovaniia o khoziaistve i kul'ture i etnicheskie protsessy u narodov Severa (Moscow: Akademiia Nauk, 1970), pp. 94–99.Google Scholar

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30. Rapid development of Homo sovieticus is asserted in such Soviet works as Kulichenko, M. I., Rastsvet i sblizhenie natsii v SSSR (Moscow: Mysl, 1981), pp. 307–80Google Scholar. Compare I. S. Gurvich, “Obshchee i osobennoe v etnicheskikh protsessakh u razlichnykh narodov SSSR,” in Bromlei, ed., Sovremennye etnicheskieprotsessy, p. 500, who admits that only about 2 percent of the population is fully “socialist” in culture. See also Edward, Allworth, ed., Nationality Group Survival in Multiethnic States (New York: Praeger, 1977)Google Scholar.

31. An increase in educated national elites in the RSFSR is claimed by V. F., Gryzlov, “Rastsvet i sblizhenie sotsialisticheskikh natsii” Nauchnyi kommunizm, no. 5 (1982): 14 Google Scholar. For a historical perspective, see D. F., Medvedev, “Za podgotovku kadrov i vydvizhenie tuzemnykh sovetskikh rabotnikov” Sovetskii Sever, no. 10 (1931): 1–17Google Scholar. On reverse discrimination policies, see Nancy, Lubin, “Assimilation and Retention of Ethnic Identity in Uzbekistan” Asian Affairs, 12 (1981): 283–84Google Scholar; Postanovlenii PraviteVstva RSFSR, no. 14 (1980), article 110.

32. Compare Z. P., Sokolova, “Sovremennye etnicheskie protsessy u obskikh ugrov” in Gurvich and Dolgikh, eds., Preobrazovaniia, pp. 87–92Google Scholar. Local movement contrasts with the outmigration of Saami from Finnish “Lappland” for jobs (according to Saami consultants in 1974). It is similar to Central Asian patterns: Carrere d'Encausse, Decline of an Empire, pp. 101-103; Rosemarie, Crisostomo, “The Muslims of the Soviet Union” Current History, 81 (October 1982): 327–40Google Scholar; Itogi Vsesoiuznoiperepisi naseleniia 1970 goda, vol. 4: Natsional'nyi sostav naseleniia SSSR (Moscow: Statistika, 1973), pp. 321-30; Vestnik statistiki (1980).

33. On Russians as implied mediators and cultural guides, see Sergeev, M. A., Nekapitalisticheskii put’ razvitiia malykh narodov Severa, Trudy Instituta Etnografti im. N. N. Miklukho- Maklaia, vol. 27 (Moscow: Akademiia Nauk, 1955), pp. 489–520 Google Scholar; G. T., Tavadov, “XXVI s“ezd KPSS o razvitii natsional'nykh otnoshenii v SSSR” Nauchnyi kommunizm, no. 3 (1982): 11–21Google Scholar. On conflict and the implications of Russian nationalism, see Edward, Allworth, Ethnic Russia in the USSR (New York: Praeger, 1980)Google Scholar; Azrael, Jeremy R., “Emergent Nationality Problems in the USSR,” in Azrael, ed., Soviet Nationality Policies and Practices, pp. 363–90Google Scholar; Jeremy R. Azrael and Steven L. Burg, “Political Participation and Ethnic Conflict in Soviet Central Asia” (Paper delivered at the International Communications Agency conference on Soviet Central Asia, 1978).

34. For Soviet views, see L. M., Sabunova, “Novoe i traditsionnoe v prazdnikakh i obriadakh narodov SSSR” in Bromlei, ed., Sovremennye etnicheskie protsessy, p. 395 Google Scholar; Zakovich, N. M., Sovetskaia obriadnost’ i dukhovnaia kul'tura (Kiev: Nauk Dumka, 1980)Google Scholar. For an example of mixed cultural influences with maintenance of national content in ritual, see Rorlich, Azade-Ay§e, “Acculturation in Tatarstan: The Case of the Sabantui Festival,” Slavic Review, 41, no. 2 (Summer 1982): 316–21.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

35. On women's advances, see G. M., Khamidova, “Sotsial'naia aktivnost’ zhenshchiny i ee rol' v razvitii sotsialisticheskogo obraza zhizni (na primere Uzbekistana)” Nauchnyi kommunizm, no. 1 (1982): 29–36Google Scholar. Compare Ellen Jones and Fred W. Grupp, “Value Change and Political Stability in the Soviet National State” (Paper delivered at the conference of the American Political Science Association, 1982); Gregory, Massell, The Surrogate Proletariat (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1974)Google Scholar; Nancy, Lubin, “Women in Soviet Central Asia: Progress and Contradictions,“ Soviet Studies, 33, no. 2 (April 1981): 182–203.Google Scholar

36. Compare Robert Lewis, A., Rowland, Richard, and Clem, Ralph, Population Redistribution in the USSR (New York: Praeger, 1979), p. 405 Google Scholar. National complexities in development are indicated (among others) by Arutiunian, I. V., Drob'eva, L. M. and Chkaratan, O. I., Sotsial'noe i Natsional’noe: Opyt etnosotsiologicheskikh issledovanii po materialam Tatarskoi ASSR (Moscow: Akademiia Nauk, 1973)Google Scholar; V. I., Kozlov, “Izmeneniia v rasselenii i urbanizatsiia narodov SSSR kak usloviia i faktory etnicheskikh protsessov” in Bromlei, ed., Sovremennye etnicheskie protsessy, pp. 137–45Google Scholar; Z. P., Sokolova, “Sovremennye etnicheskie protsessy u obskikh ugrov” in Gurvich and Dolgikh, eds., Preobrazovaniia, pp. 85–105.Google Scholar

37. Balzer, Marjorie Mandelstam, “Doctors or Deceivers? Siberian Khanty Shamans and Soviet Medicine,” in Lola Romanucci-Ross, Daniel Moerman, and Lawrence Tancredi, eds., The Anthropology of Medicine (South Hadley, Mass.: Bergin, 1982)Google Scholar. On shariat courts, see Alexander Moiseevich Nekrich, The Punished Peoples (New York: Norton, 1978), pp. 155-63. On unofficial Islam, see Bennigsen, Alexander A. and Wimbush, S. Enders, Muslim National Communism in the Soviet Union (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1979), pp. 107–108 Google Scholar. On balance, parallel politicalreligious institutions appear rare, albeit noteworthy.