Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-r5fsc Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-24T01:37:46.910Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Older homeless people: increasing numbers and changing needs

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  31 October 2014

Maureen Crane  and
Louise Joly
Maureen Crane*
Affiliation:
Social Care Workforce Research Unit, King's College London, UK
Louise Joly
Affiliation:
Social Care Workforce Research Unit, King's College London, UK
*
Address for correspondence: Maureen Crane, Reader in Applied Social Research/Senior Research Fellow, Social Care Workforce Research Unit, King's College London, Strand, London WC2R 2LS. Email: [email protected]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Summary

Evidence from England, Australia, Canada, Japan and the USA indicates that the single homeless population is ageing, and that increasing numbers of older people are homeless. This paper reviews evidence of changes in the age structure of the single homeless population, and the factors that are likely to have had an influence on the growth of the older homeless population. In many Western cities, the housing situation of older people is changing and there is a growing reliance on the private rented sector. Unemployment is also having an impact on older people who are under the official retirement age. An increasing number of older people are experiencing problems linked to alcohol, drugs, gambling and criminality, and these are all behaviours that can contribute to homelessness. Despite high levels of morbidity and disability among older homeless people, they are a relatively neglected group and receive little attention from policy makers and mainstream aged care services.

Keywords

older peoplehomelessnesshealth problemsalcohol problemsdrug problems
Type
Review Article
Information
Reviews in Clinical Gerontology , Volume 24 , Issue 4 , November 2014 , pp. 255 - 268
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2014 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

1Cohen, N.Aging and Homelessness in New York City. New York: Ravazzin Center on Aging, 2012.Google Scholar
2McFerran, L.It Could Be You: Female, Single, Older and Homeless. Woolloomooloo, New South Wales, Australia: Homelessness NSW, 2010.Google Scholar
3Crane, M, Warnes, AM. Homelessness among older people and service responses. Rev Clin Gerontol 2010; 20: 354–63.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
4Cohen, CI, Sokolovsky, J. Old Men of the Bowery: Strategies for Survival Among the Homeless. New York: Guilford, 1989.Google Scholar
5Hahn, JA, Kushel, MB, Bangsberg, DR, Riley, E, Moss, AR. The aging of the homeless population: fourteen-year trends in San Francisco. J Gen Int Med 2006; 21: 775–78.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
6Israel, N, Toro, PA, Ouellette, N. Changes in the composition of the homeless population, 1992–2002. Am J Community Psychol 2010; 46: 49–59.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
7Broadway. Street to Home: Annual Report for London 2005/06. London: Broadway, 2006.Google Scholar
8St Mungo's Broadway. Street to Home: 1st April 2013–31st March 2014. London: St Mungo's Broadway, 2014.Google Scholar
9National Health Care for the Homeless Council. Ageing and housing instability: homelessness among older and elderly adults. Focus: Quarterly Research Review of the National HCH Council 2013; 2: 1–5.Google Scholar
10Barkow, K. Key Findings and Policy Implications: From the 2013 Alameda Countywide Homeless Count and Survey Report November 2013. Union City, CA: Aspire Consulting LCC, 2013.Google Scholar
11Applied Survey Research. 2009 Santa Clara County Homeless Census and Survey. Watsonville, CA: Applied Survey Research, 2009.Google Scholar
12Applied Survey Research. 2013 Santa Clara County Homeless Point-in-Time Census andSurvey. Watsonville, CA: Applied Survey Research, 2013.Google Scholar
13Morgan State University School of Architecture and Planning. Counting Matters: Baltimore City Homeless Point-in-Time Census Report. Baltimore, MD: Morgan State University School of Architecture and Planning, 2011.Google Scholar
14Mayor's Office of Human Services. City of Baltimore 2013 Homeless Point in Time Count Report. Baltimore, Maryland: Homeless Services Program, Mayor's Office of Human Services, 2013.Google Scholar
15Corporation for Supportive Housing. New Jersey Point in Time Count of the Homeless Data Report: January 27, 2010. Trenton, New Jersey: Corporation for Supportive Housing, 2010.Google Scholar
16Corporation for Supportive Housing. New Jersey Point in Time Count of the Homeless: January 30, 2013. Trenton, New Jersey: Corporation for Supportive Housing, 2013.Google Scholar
17McClenon, F. Point in Time Count of Persons Experiencing Homelessness: Marin County2011 Report Findings. San Rafael, CA: County of Marin Health & Human Services, 2011.Google Scholar
18McClenon, F. Marin County 2013 Point in Time Count Comprehensive Report Findings. San Rafael, CA: County of Marin Health & Human Services, 2013.Google Scholar
19Metro Dallas Homeless Alliance. 2007 Annual ‘Point in Time’ Homeless Count. Dallas, TX: Metro Dallas Homeless Alliance, 2007.Google Scholar
20Metro Dallas Homeless Alliance. 2013 Point in Time Homeless Count and Census. Dallas, TX: Metro Dallas Homeless Alliance, 2013.Google Scholar
21Regional Task Force on the Homeless. SD Regional Homeless Profile Summary: Summary Results from the San Diego Regional 2012 Point-In-Time Count. San Diego, CA: Regional Task Force on the Homeless, 2012.Google Scholar
22Regional Task Force on the Homeless. 2013 San Diego Regional Homeless Profile: Summary Results from the San Diego Regional 2013 Point-In-Time Count. San Diego, California: Regional Task Force on the Homeless, 2013.Google Scholar
23Department of Community Services. City & County of Honolulu: Homeless Point-in-Time Count 2011. City & County of Honolulu, State of Hawaii: Department of Community Services, 2011.Google Scholar
24Department of Community Services. City & County of Honolulu: Homeless Point-in-Time Count 2014. City & County of Honolulu, State of Hawaii: Department of Community Services, 2014.Google Scholar
25Eberle Planning and Research. Vancouver Homeless Count 2013: Final Report. Vancouver, British Columbia: Eberle Planning and Research, 2013.Google Scholar
263 Ways to Home. Results of the 2014 Homeless Count in the Metro Vancouver Region. Vancouver, British Columbia: Greater Vancouver Regional Steering Committee on Homelessness, 2014.Google Scholar
27Community & Neighbourhood Services. Results of the 2006 Count of Homeless Persons in Calgary. Calgary, Alberta: Community & Neighbourhood Services Policy & Planning Division, City of Calgary, 2006.Google Scholar
28Calgary Homeless Foundation. Point-in-Time Count Report: Winter 2014. Calgary, Alberta: Calgary Homeless Foundation, 2014.Google Scholar
29Shelter, Support and Housing Administration. 2006 Street Needs Assessment: Results and Key Findings. Toronto Staff Report. Available at: www.toronto.ca/legdocs/2006/agendas/committees/cms/cms060705/it023.pdf (accessed 2 August 2014).Google Scholar
30City of Toronto. Street Needs Assessment 2013. Toronto, Ontario: City of Toronto, 2013.Google Scholar
31Sorensen, M. 2012 Edmonton Homeless Count. Edmonton, Alberta: Homeward Trust, 2012.Google Scholar
32Australian Bureau of Statistics. Census of Population and Housing: Estimating Homelessness. Canberra, Australia: Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2011.Google Scholar
33Kasai, T. Old age far from gentle for Japan's graying homeless. Available at: www.reuters.com/article/2013/03/01/us-japan-homeless-ageing-idUSBRE92005720130301 (accessed 1 August 2014).Google Scholar
34Okamoto, Y. A comparative study of homelessness in the United Kingdom and Japan. Social Issues 2007; 63: 525–42.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
35Iwata, M. New landscapes of homelessness in Japan: the role of NPOs and landscape of the problem. City, Culture and Society 2010; 1: 127–34.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
36Toro, PA, Hobden, KL, Durham, KW, Oko-Riebau, M, Bokszczanin, A. Comparing the characteristics of homeless adults in Poland and the United States. Am J Community Psychol 2014; 53: 134–45.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
37Instituto Nacional de Estadística (Spain). Survey on Homeless Persons 2005. Available at: http://www.ine.es/jaxi/menu.do?type=pcaxis&path=/t25/p454/e02/a2005/&file=pcaxis (accessed 5 August 2014).Google Scholar
38Instituto Nacional de Estadística (Spain). Survey on Homeless Persons 2012. Available at: http://www.ine.es/jaxi/menu.do?type=pcaxis&path=/t25/p454/e02/a2012/&file=pcaxis (accessed 5 August 2014).Google Scholar
39Istat (Italy). Year 2011: The Homeless. Available at: http://istat.it/en/files/2013/06/Homeless.pdf?title=T (accessed 5 August 2014).Google Scholar
40Cheng, LC, Yang, YS. Homeless problems in Taiwan: looking beyond legality toward social issues. City, Culture and Society 2010; 1: 165–73.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
41Crane, M.Understanding Older Homeless People: Their Circumstances, Problems and Needs. Buckingham, UK: Open University Press, 1999.Google Scholar
42Crane, M, Byrne, K, Fu, Ret al.The causes of homelessness in later life: findings from a three-nation study. J Geront Soc Sci 2005; 60B: S152–59.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
43McDonald, L, Dergal, J, Cleghorn, L. Living on the margins. J Gerontol Social Work 2007; 49: 19–46.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
44Shinn, M, Gottlieb, J, Wett, JL, Bahl, A, Cohen, A, Ellis, DB. Predictors of homelessness among older adults in New York City. J Health Psychol 2007; 12: 696–708.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
45Petersen, M, Jones, A. Homelessness and Older Australians: Scoping the Issues. Canberra, Australia: Department of Families, Housing, Community Services and Indigenous Affairs, 2012.Google Scholar
46Office for National Statistics. Population Ageing in the United Kingdom, its Constituent Countries and the European Union. London: Office for National Statistics, 2012.Google Scholar
47Howden, LM, Meyer, JA. Age and Sex Composition: 2010. 2010 Census Briefs. Washington DC: US Census Bureau, US Department of Commerce, 2011.Google Scholar
48Vincent, GK, Velkoff, VA. The Next Four Decades. The Older Population in the United States: 2010 to 2050. Washington DC: US Census Bureau, US Department of Commerce, 2010.Google Scholar
49Sermons, MW, Henry, M. Demographics of Homelessness Series: The Rising Elderly Population. Washington DC: Homelessness Research Institute, 2010.Google Scholar
50Culhane, DP, Metraux, S, Byrne, T, Stino, M, Bainbridge, J. The age structure of contemporary homelessness: evidence and implications for public policy. Analyses Social Issues Public Policy 2013; 13: 228–44.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
51Burt, MR. Over the Edge: the Growth of Homelessness in the 1980s. New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1992.Google Scholar
52Elliott, M, Krivo, L. Structural determinants of homelessness in the United States. Social Problems 1991; 38: 113–31.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
53United States Interagency Council on Homelessness. Opening Doors: Federal Strategic Plan to Prevent and End Homelessness. Washington DC: United States Interagency Council on Homelessness, 2010.Google Scholar
54Greater London Authority. Trends in Housing Tenure. London: Greater London Authority Intelligence, 2013.Google Scholar
55Department for Communities and Local Government (DCLG). English Housing Survey: Headline Report 2012–13. London: DCLG, 2014.Google Scholar
56Rugg, J, Croucher, K. Older People's Experiences of Renting Privately. London: Age UK, 2010.Google Scholar
57Theseira, M. Stressed: A Review of London's Private Rental Sector. London: Centre for London, 2013.Google Scholar
58DCLG. Table 774 Statutory homelessness: households accepted by local authorities, as owed a main homelessness duty, by reason for loss of last settled home, England, 1998 to 2014. Available at: https://www.gov.uk/government/statistical-data-sets/live-tables-on-homelessness (accessed 2 August 2014).Google Scholar
59Petersen, M, Jones, A. Addressing Later Life Homelessness. Queensland, Australia: Institute for Social Science Research, University of Queensland, 2013.Google Scholar
60Westmore, T, Mallet, S. Ageing in What Place? The Experience of Housing Crisis and Homelessness for Older Victorians. Melbourne, Australia: Hanover Welfare Services, 2011.Google Scholar
61Beer, A, Faulkner, D. 21st Century Housing Careers and Australia's Housing Future. Melbourne, Victoria: Australian Housing and Urban Research Institute, 2009.Google Scholar
62Eastgate, J, Hunter, J, Wallace, H. Marginal Tenures: A National Picture. Tasmania, Australia: National Shelter, 2011.Google Scholar
63Wensing, E, Wood, M, Holloway, D. On the Margins? Housing Risk Among Caravan Park Residents. Melbourne, Victoria: Australian Housing and Urban Research Institute, 2003.Google Scholar
64Morris, A. Living on the margins: comparing older private renters and older public housing tenants in Sydney, Australia. Housing Studies 2009; 24: 693–707.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
65Jeszeck, CA. Unemployed Older Workers: Many Face Long-Term Joblessness and Reduced Retirement Security. Washington DC: United States Government Accountability Office, 2012.Google Scholar
66Tinsley, M. Too Much to Lose: Understanding and Supporting Britain's Older Workers. London: Policy Exchange, 2012.Google Scholar
67Rovny, A. The Capacity of Social Policies to Combat Poverty Among New Social Risk Groups. LIS Working Paper Series No. 605. Luxembourg: LIS Cross-National Data Center, 2014.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
68Department for Work and Pensions. Fuller Working Lives: A Framework for Action. London: Department for Work and Pensions, 2014.Google Scholar
69Johnson, RW, Butrica, BA. Age Disparities in Unemployment and Re-employment during the Great Recession and Recovery. Washington DC: Urban Institute, 2012.Google Scholar
70Sekine, Y. The rise of poverty in Japan: the emergence of the working poor. Japan Labor Review 2008; 5: 49–66.Google Scholar
71Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD). Old-Age Income Poverty. In Pensions at a Glance 2013: OECD and G20 Indicators. Available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/pension_glance-2013-26-en (accessed 31 July 2014).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
72Wu, KB. Income and Poverty of Older Americans. Fact Sheet 287. Washington DC: AARP Public Policy Institute, 2013.Google Scholar
73Liu, JC. Senior Housing in New York City: The Coming Crisis. New York: Office of the Comptroller City of New York, 2013.Google Scholar
74Wadd, S, Lapworth, K, Sullivan, M, Forrester, D, Galvani, S. Working With Older Drinkers. Luton, Bedfordshire: Tilda Goldberg Centre, University of Bedfordshire, 2011.Google Scholar
75DrugScope. It's About Time: Tackling Substance Misuse in Older People. London: DrugScope, 2014.Google Scholar
76Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. Results from the 2012 National Survey on Drug Use and Health: Summary of National Findings. Rockville, MD: Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, 2013.Google Scholar
77Lewis, C, Horgan, P. Drug Statistics from the National Drug Treatment Monitoring System (NDTMS): 1 April 2012 to 31 March 2013. London: Public Health England, 2013.Google Scholar
78European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction. Treatment and Care for Older Drug Users. Lisbon, Portugal: European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction, 2010.Google Scholar
79Information Services Division (ISD) Scotland. NHS Health Board Overview of Initial Assessments for Specialist Drug Treatment 2012/13. Edinburgh, Scotland: Scottish Drugs Misuse Database, Epidemiology and Statistics Group, ISD Scotland, 2014.Google Scholar
80Arndt, S, Clayton, R, Schultz, SK. Trends in substance abuse treatment 1998–2008: increasing older adult first-time admissions for illicit drugs. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry 2011; 19: 704–11.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
81Lofwall, MR, Schuster, A, Strain, EC. Changing profile of abused substances by older persons entering treatment. J Nervous Mental Disease 2008; 196: 898–905.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
82Ariyabuddhiphongs, V. Older adults and gambling: a review. Int J Ment Health Addiction 2012; 10: 297–308.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
83Martin, F, Lichtenberg, PA, Templin, TN. A longitudinal study: casino gambling attitudes, motivations, and gambling patterns among urban elders. J Gambl Stud 2011; 27: 287–97.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
84Southwell, J, Boreham, P, Laffan, W. Problem gambling and the circumstances facing older people: a study of gaming machine players aged 60 +in licensed clubs. J Gambl Stud 2008; 24: 151–74.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
85Petry, NM. Comparison of young, middle-aged, and older adult treatment-seeking pathological gamblers. Gerontologist 2002; 42: 92–99.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
86Tirachaimongkol, LC, Jackson, AC, Tomnay, JE. Pathways to problem gambling in seniors. J Gerontological Social Work 2010; 53: 531–46.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
87Productivity Commission. Australia's Gambling Industries. Inquiry Report No. 10. Canberra, Australia: Productivity Commission, 1999.Google Scholar
88Victorian Department of Justice. A study of Gambling in Victoria: Problem Gambling from a Public Health Perspective. Victoria, Australia: Department of Justice, 2009.Google Scholar
89Fong, TW. The vulnerable faces of pathological gambling. Psychiatry 2005; 68: 34–42.Google Scholar
90Tse, S, Hong, SI, Wang, CW, Cunningham-Williams, RM. Gambling behaviour and problems among older adults: a systematic review of empirical studies. Psychol Sci Social Sci 2012; 67: 639–52.Google ScholarPubMed
91Lichtenberg, PA, Martin, F, Anderson, C. Gambling in older adults: an emerging problem for nurses. J Addictions Nursing 2009; 20: 119–23.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
92Levens, S, Dyer, AM, Zubritsky, , Knott, K, Oslin, DW. Gambling among older, primary-care patients. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry 2005; 13: 69–76.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
93Moll, A. Losing Track of Time. Dementia and the Ageing Prison Population: Treatment Challenges and Examples of Good Practice. London: Mental Health Foundation, 2013.Google Scholar
94House of Commons Justice Committee. Older Prisoners. Fifth Report of Session 2013–14. London: Stationery Office.Google Scholar
95Ministry of Justice. Offender Management Caseload Statistics 2009. Available at: https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/218065/omcs-2009-complete210710a.pdf (accessed 31 July 2014).Google Scholar
96Human Rights Watch. Old Behind Bars: the Aging Prison Population in the United States. New York: Human Rights Watch, 2012.Google Scholar
97Baidawi, S, Turner, S, Trotter, C, Browning, C, Collier, P, O’Connor, D, Sheehan, R. Older Prisoners: A Challenge for Australian Corrections. Canberra, Australia: Australian Institute of Criminology, 2011.Google Scholar
98Price, CA. Aging Inmate Population Study. North Carolina, USA: North Carolina Department of Correction, Division of Prisons, 2006.Google Scholar
99Howse, K. Growing Old in Prison: A Scoping Study on Older Prisoners. London: Centre for Policy on Ageing and Prison Reform Trust, 2003.Google Scholar
100Williams, BA, McGuire, J, Lindsay, RG, Baillargeon, J, Cenzer, IS, Lee, SJ, Kushel, M. Coming home: health status and homelessness risk of older pre-release prisoners. J Gen Intern Med 2010; 25: 1034–44.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
101Brown, RT, Kimes, RV, Guzman, D, Kushel, M. Health care access and utilization in older versus younger homeless adults. J Health Care for the Poor and Underserved 2010; 21: 1060–70.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
102Brown, RT, Kiely, DK, Bharel, M, Mitchell, SL. Factors associated with geriatric syndromes in older homeless adults. J Health Care Poor Underserved 2013; 24: 456–68.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
103Crane, M, Warnes, AM. Single Homeless People in London: Profiles of Service Users and Perceptions of Needs. Sheffield, England: Sheffield Institute for Studies on Ageing, University of Sheffield, 2001.Google Scholar
104Warnes, AM, Crane, M. The causes of homelessness among older people in England. Housing Studies 2006; 21: 401–21.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
105Kennett, P, Mizuuchi, T. Homelessness, housing insecurity and social exclusion in China, Hong Kong, and Japan. City, Culture and Society 2010; 1: 111–18.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
106Crane, M, Warnes, AM, Coward, S. Moves to Independent Living: Single Homeless People's Experiences and Outcomes of Resettlement. Sheffield, England: Sheffield Institute for Studies on Ageing, University of Sheffield, 2011. Available at: www.kcl.ac.uk/sspp/kpi/scwru/pubs/2011/craneetal2011forhomefinalreport.pdf (accessed 6 August 2014).Google Scholar
107Crane, M, Warnes, AM. Homeless people: older homeless people. In Smith, SJ, Elsinga, M, O’Mahony, LF, Eng, OS, Wachter, S (eds). International Encyclopedia of Housing and Home. Oxford: Elsevier, 2012; 3; 104–10.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
108Brown, RT, Kiely, DK, Bharel, M, Mitchell, SL. Geriatric syndromes in older homeless adults. J Gen Intern Med 2011; 27: 16–22.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
109Van derBerk-Clark, C, McGuire, J. Elderly homeless veterans in Los Angeles: chronicity and precipitants of homelessness. Am J Public Health 2013; 103 (S2): S232–38.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
110Garibaldi, B, Conde-Martel, A, O’Toole, TP. Self-reported comorbidities, perceived needs, and sources for usual care for older and younger homeless adults. J Gen Intern Med 2005; 20: 726–30.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
111Schinka, JA, Schinka, KC, Casey, RJ, Kasprow, W, Bossarte, RM. Suicidal behavior in a national sample of older homeless veterans. Am J Public Health 2012; 102: S147–53.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
112Gilchrist, G, Morrison, DS. Prevalence of alcohol-related brain damage among homeless hostel dwellers in Glasgow. Eur J Public Health 2005; 15: 587–88.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
113Baggett, TP, Hwang, SW, O’Connell, JJet al.Mortality among homeless adults in Boston. JAMA Intern Med 2013; 173: 189–95.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
114Beijer, U, Andreasson, GA, Fugelstad, A. Mortality and causes of death among homeless women and men in Stockholm. Scand J Public Health 2011; 39: 121–27.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
115Crane, M, Warnes, AM. Lessons from Lancefield Street: Tackling the Needs of Older Homeless People. London: Homeless Link, 2000.Google Scholar
116Crane, M, Joly, L. An Evaluation of The Lodge at St Ursula's. London: Social Care Workforce Research Unit, King's College London, 2011.Google Scholar
117Warnes, AM, Crane, M. The achievements of a multi-service project for older homeless people. Gerontologist 2000; 40: 618–26.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
118Hwang, SW, O’Connell, JJ, Lebow, JM, Bierer, MF, Orav, EJ, Brennan, TA. Health care utilization among homeless adults prior to death. J Health Care Poor Underserved 2001; 12: 50–58.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
119Crane, M, Warnes, AM. Responding to the needs of older homeless people: the effectiveness and limitations of British services. Innovation: Eur J Social Science Res 2005; 18: 137–52.Google Scholar
120Gonyea, JG, Mills-Dick, K, Bachman, SS. The complexities of elder homelessness, a shifting political landscape and emerging community responses. J Gerontological Social Work 2010; 53: 575–90.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
121Homeless Link, St Mungo's, Crisis. The Programme's Not Working: Experiences of Homeless People on the Work Programme. London: Homeless Link, 2012.Google Scholar
122Krakowsky, Y, Gofine, M, Brown, P, Danziger, J, Knowles, H. Increasing access – a qualitative study of homelessness and palliative care in a major urban center. Am J Hosp Palliat Care 2013; 30: 268–70.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
123McNeil, R, Guirguis-Younger, M. Illicit drug use as a challenge to the delivery of end-of-life care services to homeless persons: perceptions of health and social services professionals. Palliative Medicine 2012; 26: 350–59.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
124Royal College of Psychiatrists. Our Invisible Addicts. College Report CR165. London: Royal College of Psychiatrists, 2011: 37.Google Scholar